Peritonitis in horses refers to inflammation of the peritoneum, the thin membrane lining the abdominal cavity and covering the abdominal organs. This condition can result from various causes, including bacterial infections, gastrointestinal perforations, or abdominal trauma. Clinical signs in horses may include abdominal pain, fever, anorexia, and depression. Diagnosis typically involves clinical examination, blood tests, and abdominal fluid analysis. Treatment strategies often include antimicrobial therapy, anti-inflammatory medications, and supportive care. This page aggregates peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the etiology, pathophysiology, diagnostic methods, and treatment options for peritonitis in equine patients.
Phillips TJ, Walmsley JP.Of 149 horses that underwent 151 exploratory laparotomies for gastrointestinal disorders from September 1987 to May 1991, 107 (72%) were discharged from the hospital: 100 (66%) survived for > 7 months, 94 of which returned to their intended use. Survival rate (64/80) for horses with caecum/large colon obstruction was significantly (P = 0.003) higher than for horses with small intestinal obstruction (33/64). Prolonged surgery was associated with significantly (P < 0.001) lower survival rates than short surgical time. In the large intestine, survival rate (15/29) for strangulated obstructions wa...
Hawkins JF, Bowman KF, Roberts MC, Cowen P.Peritonitis was diagnosed in 67 horses between 1985 and 1990: 14 horses developed septic peritonitis after intestinal rupture, 25 horses developed peritonitis after abdominal surgery, and 28 horses had peritonitis not associated with intestinal rupture or abdominal surgery. Forty of 67 horses (59.7%) did not survive. Nonsurvivors had higher heart rates (P = 0.01), RBC count (P = 0.039), serum creatinine concentration (P = 0.036), PCV (P = 0.007), and anion gap (P = 0.005); lower venous blood pH (P = 0.002); and a greater number of bacterial species cultured from peritoneal fluid samples (P = 0...
Jones SL, Wilson WD.Clostridium septicum was isolated by anaerobic culture of blood collected from a 3-day-old foal with hemorrhagic enteritis and signs suggestive of septicemia. The foal responded well to treatment with intravenous fluids, antibiotics, plasma, and oral gastrointestinal protectants. One month after apparent complete recovery from the septicemia and hemorrhagic enteritis, the foal was euthanized during an acute episode of colic that was caused by severe, strangulating intestinal adhesions, thought to have formed as a result of peritonitis secondary to the hemorrhagic enteritis. The value of anaero...
Chaffin MK, Fuenteabla IC, Schumacher J, Welch RD, Edwards JF.The medical records of 11 horses with idiopathic muscular hypertrophy (MH) of the small intestine were reviewed to determine the clinical and pathological features of the disease. The median age of affected horses was 10.0 years (range 5-18 years). No breed or sex predisposition was apparent. Ten horses (91%) had chronic (23 days to 2.4 years) signs of mild, intermittent colic, and 1 horse had signs of severe colic of only 3 days' duration. Partial anorexia and chronic weight loss of variable duration (1-6 months) were prominent historical findings in 5 (45%) horses. Diagnostic tests, with the...
Moll HD, Schumacher J.A 2-year-old Tennessee Walking Horse colt was admitted for evaluation of signs of abdominal pain, inappetence, and constipation of 5 days' duration. Two days prior to the onset of signs, the owner had cut the sacrococcygeal muscles as part of a tail-setting procedure. On examination, the horse was febrile and lethargic, and intestinal sounds were not heard on auscultation. Results of peritoneal fluid analysis were indicative of peritonitis. The horse continued to deteriorate and died despite treatment with antimicrobials, flunixin meglumine, and balanced electrolyte solution. At necropsy, the ...
Murray MJ.Gastroendoscopy was performed on 111 horses (1 to 22 years old) that had signs of abdominal discomfort of variable duration and severity. At least 1 episode of colic had been observed within 48 hours of examination in 31 horses. Recurrent episodes of colic were observed in 28 horses within 2 to 10 days of examination, 31 horses within 11 to 30 days, 12 horses within 31 to 60 days, and in 9 horses at more than 60 days after the initial examination. Gastric ulceration was found in 91 of 111 horses examined. Other abnormalities involving the gastrointestinal tract or other abdominal viscera were ...
Gibson KT, Trotter GW, Gustafson SB.Uroperitoneum as a sequela to urethral calculus in an adult gelding was successfully managed by use of subischial urethrotomy and abdominal drainage. Necrosis of bladder mucosa was seen endoscopically, but a tear or rupture was never identified. Peritonitis developed but was controlled with antibacterial treatment. Although uroperitoneum is usually a sequela to bladder rupture and the ideal treatment is surgical repair, conservative management may be warranted in selected cases.
Clabough DL, Duckett W.An 8-year-old Arabian gelding with septic cholangitis and peritonitis was successfully treated with trimethoprim/sulfadiazine. The gelding was referred for evaluation of signs of abdominal pain, icterus, fever, and weight loss. Peritoneal fluid analysis revealed septic and suppurative peritonitis. Culture of the peritoneal fluid yielded Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae, which were sensitive to trimethoprim/sulfadiazine. On the basis of results of hepatic ultrasonography, a diagnosis of septic cholangitis also was made. The horse was treated with 30 mg of trimethoprim/sulfadiazine/kg,...
Dart AJ, Pascoe JR, Snyder JR.Segmental ischemic necrosis of the descending colon associated with discrete tears of the mesocolon were diagnosed in 2 mares following foaling. After foaling, both mares had a slow onset of signs of abdominal pain and gradual deterioration of clinical status. Increases in peritoneal fluid total protein concentration and WBC count and a palpable impaction of the descending colon on examination per rectum were useful diagnostic aids. Surgical intervention was successful in one mare, but not in the other.
Sweeney RW, Sweeney CR, Weiher J.Case records of 200 horses treated with metronidazole were reviewed. Horses were treated for respiratory tract infections (90 cases), peritonitis or abdominal abscess (39 cases), celiotomy (49 cases), orthopedic infections (6 cases), and miscellaneous soft tissue infections (16 cases). Bacteria of the genus Bacteroides were most prevalent (55 of 167 anaerobic isolates). Metronidazole was always used in combination with other antimicrobial drugs. Only 4 of the 200 horses had signs of adverse effects associated with metronidazole treatment. Those 4 horses had poor appetite that resolved when met...
Sweeney RW, Hansen TO.Six horses with dysphagia (attributable to botulism, glossitis, or guttural pouch mycosis) were given a commercially available liquid diet as the sole source of nutrition. Seven horses with hypophagia caused by severe bacterial pleuropneumonia or peritonitis were given the liquid diet to supplement food consumed voluntarily. The liquid diet was administered through a nasogastric tube 2 or 3 times daily. Body weight did not change significantly, and pertinent laboratory values remained at satisfactory concentrations throughout the feeding period. Serious complications were not encountered. Thre...
Mair TS, Hillyer MH, Taylor FG.The clinical signs in 21 adult horses affected by peritonitis (unassociated with gastrointestinal rupture or surgical interference of the abdomen) included colic (18 cases), pyrexia (15 cases), weight loss (six cases) and diarrhoea (five cases). The diagnosis was based on a nucleated cell count in peritoneal fluid greater than 10(10)/litre. Haematological abnormalities (either neutropenia or neutrophilia) were present in 17 animals, and hyperfibrinogenaemia was identified in 14. Twelve of the 21 horses survived after intensive antibiotic therapy; the other nine were destroyed either at explora...
Allison N, Gillis JP.Enteric pythiosis was diagnosed in a 2-year-old Quarter Horse gelding. The horse had signs of colic, which appeared to be alleviated by administration of mineral oil and analgesics, but only temporarily. Intestinal distention developed after initial examination. At surgery, a thick stenotic area was observed in the middle portion of the jejunum. The thick intestine and associated mesentery contained multiple firm nodules of gritty caseous material. Histopathologic findings included sclerosing eosinophilic granulomatous enteritis and peritonitis. Although the lesion resembled a response to migr...
Lundin C, Sullins KE, White NA, Clem MF, Debowes RM, Pfeiffer CA.Twenty-two foals were divided into groups of intestinal distension and intestinal ischaemia as methods to induce peritoneal adhesions. In the first group, the lumen of a segment of distal small intestine was occluded without extramural vascular compromise and distended with lactated Ringer's solution to a constant pressure of 25 cm H2O for 2 h within the abdomen. The ischaemic group underwent 70 mins total vascular occlusion of identical segments of bowel. Serosal biopsies were obtained before and after each experimental procedure and following 60 mins of reperfusion. Similar biopsies were har...
Cambridge H, Reynoldson JA, Dunsmore JD.Plasma thromboxane B2 (TXB2) the stable inactive metabolite of thromboxane A2 (TXA2), was measured daily by specific radioimmunoassay in three groups of animals before and after experimental infection with Strongylus vulgaris. Infection of four 'parasite naive' foals produced a typical acute syndrome with intermittent but statistically insignificant rises in TXB2 levels. Interpretation of results was complicated by the presence of a non-septic peritonitis associated with implantation of the foals with electrodes for recording myoelectrical activity. In two foals of similar age, with some natur...
Wilson DA, Foreman JH, Boero MJ, Didier PJ, Lerner DJ.A large granulosa cell tumor was believed to be responsible for causing obstruction and subsequent rupture of the small colon in a 10-year-old Quarter Horse mare. Two months earlier, a mass, tentatively diagnosed as granulosa cell tumor of the left ovary, had been identified by means of rectal palpation and ultrasonography. The mare was evaluated for clinical signs of acute, severe, abdominal pain, increased heart rate, cyanotic mucous membranes, clinical dehydration, with high PCV, leukopenia, and extreme abdominal distension. A large soft tissue mass and taut band that constricted the lumen ...
Hanson RR, Nixon AJ, Calderwood-Mays M, Gronwall R.In an attempt to determine the best method for surgical removal of devitalized small colon lesions, 12 horses underwent a double small colon resection and end-to-end anastomosis. In 4 horses (study 1), an appositional single-layer (APP-1) suture pattern was compared with an inverting 2-layer (INV-2) suture pattern. In 8 horses (study 2), an appositional 2-layer (APP-2) suture pattern was compared with the INV-2 suture technique. Polydioxanone suture (size 1-0), was used. Horses were evaluated at necropsy 3, 10, 14, 28, or 56 days after surgery. Postoperative complications (peritonitis, impacti...
Slocombe RF, Slauson DO.Invasive pulmonary aspergillosis was identified in 19 horses. In 16 cases mycotic lesions were associated with enterocolitis; 14 cases appeared to result from Salmonella infection. Pulmonary lesions included multifocal areas of acute necrosis, leukocytoclastic vasculitis, and thrombosis with fibrinosuppurative inflammation surrounding mycelial masses. Thromboemboli with fungi were in the brain and kidneys of three cases. Factors which appeared to predispose to pulmonary aspergillosis included corticosteroid therapy, disseminated neoplasms, hepatitis, pleuritis, and peritonitis. This study sugg...
Schneider RK, Meyer DJ, Embertson RM, Gentile DG, Buergelt CD.Peritoneal lavage was performed on ponies to determine the effect on peritoneal surfaces. Lavage solution (20 L) was introduced into each pony's peritoneal cavity through catheters placed in the paralumbar fossa, and the solution was removed by drainage from the ventral portion of the abdomen. Six ponies each were lavaged with sterile saline (0.9% NaCl) solution, sterile saline solution containing 5 X 10(6) U of potassium penicillin and 3 g of neomycin or povidone-iodine diluted to 3% by volume with sterile saline solution, and 3 ponies were lavaged with povidone-iodine diluted to 10% with ste...
Markel MD.Peritonitis and adhesions in the horse are best managed through prevention. Perioperative antimicrobial therapy, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory therapy, experienced personnel, and good surgical techniques should minimize complications after surgery. Despite preventative measures, some horses still develop peritonitis after surgery. Immediate, intensive treatment is necessary to enhance their chances for survival.
Adams SB.Ileus may occur in horses of all ages secondarily to drug administration, colic, exhaustion, peritonitis, or metabolic disorders. Ileus most commonly occurs following abdominal surgery for colic and is a significant cause of postoperative mortality in these horses. The most common clinical signs of ileus are decreased or absent intestinal sounds and gastric reflux. Ileus is treated by eliminating the initiating causes, correcting metabolic imbalances, decompressing distended bowel, providing analgesia, stimulating motility with drugs, and regulating exercise and feed and water intake.
Freeman DE, Orsini JA, Harrison IW, Muller NS, Leitch M.Of 147 horses treated for umbilical hernias over a 13.5-year period, 13 horses (8.8%) developed complications in association with umbilical defects. Six horses had intestinal incarceration; the incarceration was reduced manually in 3 horses before admission, resolved without treatment in 2 others, and was surgically reduced in one. Herniorrhaphy was performed on 4 of the 5 horses in which the incarceration did not require surgical reduction, and the fifth was managed conservatively. A horse with a parietal hernia and a horse with intestinal stragulation were treated surgically; in the latter, ...
Schumacher J, Schumacher J, Spano JS, McGuire J, Scrutchfield WL, Feldman RG.Twenty-four clinically normal horses were castrated by routine methods. Peritoneal fluid was collected prior to castration and at 1, 3, 5, and 7 days postcastration. Peritoneal fluid was collected on days 9 and 11 if nucleated cell (NC) counts were still markedly elevated on day 7. Peritonitis, defined as NC counts greater than 10,000/microliters, was evident in 15 horses following castration. Mean NC counts peaked on day 5 but were less than 10,000/microliters for 74% of the horses by day 7, and 90% of the horses by day 9. One horse had a NC count greater than 60,000/microliters on day 11 whe...
Parry BW.Clinical pathology is a valuable adjunct to physical examination of cases of colic. The present review considers evaluation of cases of colic for three main purposes: (1) making a prognosis, (2) deciding whether to operate, and (3) making a diagnosis. Blood tests noted to be useful for prognostication were hematocrit, lactate and urea nitrogen concentrations, pH, anion gap, fibrin/fibrinogen degradation products, antithrombin III activity, prothrombin time, and thrombin time. Horses with a poor prognosis often have relative polycythemia, marked lactic acidosis, high anion gap, azotemia, and co...
Taylor TS, Watkins JP, Schumacher J.A temporary indwelling liner was surgically installed in 17 horses with grade III or grade IV rectal tears. The rectal tears of 9 of the horses healed. The remaining 8 horses developed peritonitis as a result of peritoneal contamination before surgery, a change in grade of the tear, or material failure.
Jung C, Hospes R, Bostedt H, Litzke LF.To report on the outcome of surgical treatment of uterine torsion in preterm mares. Methods: Retrospective case series of pregnant mares with uterine torsion presented to the Clinic for Obstetrics, Gynaecology and Andrology of Large and Small Animals. Methods: Hospital records of all pregnant mares that underwent ventral midline laparotomy for uterine torsion between 1998 and 2004 were reviewed. The signalment, history, clinical signs, results of diagnostic procedures, direction and degree of the uterine twist, treatment and outcome were retrieved from each case record. Results: This study com...
Archer DC, Clegg PD, Edwards GB.A 21-year-old Arab gelding with clinical signs of acute peritonitis had a perforating ulcer on the mesenteric border of the jejunum which resulted in localised contamination of the abdomen with ingesta. The affected segment of jejunum was resected and the abdomen was lavaged extensively. Postoperatively, the gelding was treated with broad-spectrum antibiotics, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and intravenous fluids, but after four days it became acutely non-weight bearing on its right hindlimb, and a tendonitis of the lateral digital flexor tendon within the tarsal sheath was identified u...
Voermans M, Butler CM, van der Velden MA, Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan MM.Umbilical hernias are common in foals. This article provides a review of the literature and presents a case of an 1.5-year-old Friesian mare with an incarcerated umbilical hernia. After reposition of the incarcerated intestine (with a lot of effort), the practising veterinarian referred the mare to the Department of Equine Sciences. Preperforative peritonitis was diagnosed, presumed to be caused by necrotic bowel. After laparotomy, this tentative diagnosis was confirmed. The necrotic part of the small intestine was resected and intensive medical treatment was started. Initially, the mare recov...
Marley LK, Soffler C, Hackett ES.OBJECTIVE To describe clinical features, diagnostic methods, treatments, and outcomes associated with ingested wire foreign bodies in the abdomen of horses. DESIGN Retrospective case series. ANIMALS 16 client-owned horses with ingested wire in their abdomens that were evaluated at a veterinary teaching hospital between April 2002 and February 2013. PROCEDURES Data for each case were collected from medical records and owners and then reviewed. Differences in clinicopathologic variables between horses that did (survivors) or did not (nonsurvivors) survive to discharge from the hospital were asse...
Hughes KJ, Dowling BA, Matthews SA, Dart AJ.To report on the outcome of surgical treatment of acute abdominal crises in miniature breed horses. Methods: Retrospective case series of miniature horses presented to the University Veterinary Centre, Camden with an acute abdominal crisis. Methods: Hospital records of all miniature horses that underwent ventral midline laparotomy for acute abdominal crisis between 1997 and 2001 were reviewed. The signalment, history, clinical signs, results of ancillary diagnostic procedures, location and type of intestinal lesion, treatment and outcome were retrieved from each case record. Long-term survival...
Merritt AM, Bolton JR, Cimprich R.Pertinent questions regarding the history of a horse with diarrhoea are listed, as are diagnostic procedures that might be included in a complete clinical work-up. For purposes of discussion, diarrhoea is regarded as "acute" or "chronic" wherein the former concerns cases where the features of the disease are severe with progressive electrolyte imbalance, dehydration, toxaemia, or other life-threatening manifestations and the latter refers to cases that have been prolonged for a month or more. Patterns of disease, including results of diagnostic techniques, are stressed. In the "acute" category...
Troy JR, Holcombe SJ, Fogle CA, Epstein KL, Woodie JB.To determine the influence of hyaluronate-carboxymethylcellulose (HA-CMC) membranes applied to intestinal anastomoses or enterotomies on postoperative complications after emergency exploratory celiotomy. Methods: Multicenter retrospective case-controlled series. Methods: Adult horses (59 in the HA-CMC group and 91 controls). Methods: Medical records from 4 referral hospitals were searched for horses ≥1 year of age, treated between 2008 and 2014 with emergency exploratory celiotomy, and surviving at least 24 hours postoperatively. Horses receiving repeat celiotomy during the same hospitalizat...
Schneider RK, Meyer DJ, Embertson RM, Gentile DG, Buergelt CD.Peritoneal lavage was performed on ponies to determine the effect on peritoneal surfaces. Lavage solution (20 L) was introduced into each pony's peritoneal cavity through catheters placed in the paralumbar fossa, and the solution was removed by drainage from the ventral portion of the abdomen. Six ponies each were lavaged with sterile saline (0.9% NaCl) solution, sterile saline solution containing 5 X 10(6) U of potassium penicillin and 3 g of neomycin or povidone-iodine diluted to 3% by volume with sterile saline solution, and 3 ponies were lavaged with povidone-iodine diluted to 10% with ste...
Mealey RH, Carter GK, Roussel AJ, Ruoff WW.Two different fluid solutions were infused through percutaneous cecal catheters in 6 healthy ponies to determine the effects on body weight; CBC; packed cell volume (PCV); total plasma protein concentration; plasma fibrinogen concentration; abdominal fluid analysis; concentrations of blood urea nitrogen (BUN), serum creatinine, Ca, total CO2 (TCO2), Na, Cl, K, and P; and fractional clearance (FC) of Na, Cl, K, and P. During intracecal administration of solution 1, FCNa and FCCl were significantly increased, whereas FCK and BUN were significantly decreased. During administration of solution 2, ...
Ramaswamy CM, Eades SC, Venugopal CS, Hosgood GL, Garza F, Barker SA, Moore RM.To compare plasma endothelin (ET)- like immunoreactivity between healthy horses and those with naturally acquired gastrointestinal tract disorders. Methods: 29 healthy horses and 142 horses with gastrointestinal tract disorders. Methods: Blood samples were collected from healthy horses and from horses with gastrointestinal tract disorders prior to treatment. Magnitude and duration of abnormal clinical signs were recorded, and clinical variables were assessed via thorough physical examinations. Plasma concentrations of ET-like immunoreactivity were measured by use of a radioimmunoassay for huma...
Prange T, Holcombe SJ, Brown JA, Dechant JE, Fubini SL, Embertson RM, Peroni J, Rakestraw PC, Hauptman JG.To determine (1) the short- (to hospital discharge) and long- (>6 months) term survival, (2) factors associated with short-term survival, and (3) the perioperative course for horses with resection and anastomosis of the descending colon. Methods: Multicentered case series. Methods: Horses (n=43) that had descending colon resection and anastomosis. Methods: Medical records (January 1995-June 2009) of 7 equine referral hospitals were reviewed for horses that had descending colon resection and anastomosis and were recovered from anesthesia. Retrieved data included history, results of clinical and...
Sweeney RW, Hansen TO.Six horses with dysphagia (attributable to botulism, glossitis, or guttural pouch mycosis) were given a commercially available liquid diet as the sole source of nutrition. Seven horses with hypophagia caused by severe bacterial pleuropneumonia or peritonitis were given the liquid diet to supplement food consumed voluntarily. The liquid diet was administered through a nasogastric tube 2 or 3 times daily. Body weight did not change significantly, and pertinent laboratory values remained at satisfactory concentrations throughout the feeding period. Serious complications were not encountered. Thre...
Birckhead EM, Das S, Tidd N, Raidal SL, Raidal SR.Septic synovitis and peritonitis are routinely diagnosed in horses based on clinical examination findings and laboratory assessment of synoviocentesis and abdominocentesis samples, respectively. Diagnosis is difficult in some cases because of an overlap in laboratory results for septic and non-septic inflammation. Neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation is part of the innate immune response against pathogens. Identifying and quantifying NETs, which have not been explored in clinical samples from horses with septic synovitis and peritonitis, to our knowledge, may be helpful in detecting i...
Toth B, Bertin FR, Miller MA, Charney VA, Kritchevsky JE.To develop and assess the short-term feasibility, maintenance, and complications associated with percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) tube placement in standing horses. Methods: 6 adult horses. Methods: Feasibility of the technique was evaluated in 2 horses. In each of 4 other horses, a PEG tube was maintained for 14 days and used to provide fluid requirements during the latter 7 days, before removal. Following air inflation of the stomach, each PEG tube was placed via a left intercostal approach; proper tube location was ascertained by percutaneous ultrasonography and gastroscopy. The ho...
Attia MM, Omar HM.This study aimed to collect data on the most common parasites of the family equidae which is spp. During this study we focused on the prevalence rate in the world; the distribution of the six known species: life cycle and the pathogenesis of the larvae inside the hosts were investigated around the world. Molecular as well as serological diagnoses were analyzed. Possible treatment strategies which were fully studied; are also, included. () and larvae are the main present larvae in equine; other species, such as , , and may be present. Although the female flies' egg-laying behavior can annoy...
Dart AJ, Pascoe JR, Snyder JR.Segmental ischemic necrosis of the descending colon associated with discrete tears of the mesocolon were diagnosed in 2 mares following foaling. After foaling, both mares had a slow onset of signs of abdominal pain and gradual deterioration of clinical status. Increases in peritoneal fluid total protein concentration and WBC count and a palpable impaction of the descending colon on examination per rectum were useful diagnostic aids. Surgical intervention was successful in one mare, but not in the other.
Rantanen NW.Because the abdomen of the adult horse is too thick to obtain good-quality radiographs, diagnostic ultrasound is a particularly valuable imaging modality in the diagnosis of abdominal disease. The size, shape, position, and texture of the liver, spleen, kidneys, urinary bladder, gravid uterus, and gut wall can be determined by scanning the abdominal surface. The presence or absence of abdominal fluid can be determined efficiently. Gut motility as well as ileus secondary to peritonitis or obstruction can be assessed. Suspected adhesions of the bowel can often be documented, and primary or secon...
Thomas HL, Zaruby JF, Smith CL, Livesey MA.Castration of horses is considered a common and routine surgical procedure, but the potential for complications is high. By far the most serious of these is eventration. The objectives of this study were to determine the long-term survival of horses undergoing surgical treatment of indirect (1) inguinal eventration of the small intestine following castration, and to identify prognostic indicators for survival. The case records of 18 horses undergoing surgical treatment of postcastration eventration (PCE) between 1985 and 1995 were reviewed. Follow-up information was obtained by telephone inter...
Gibson KT, Trotter GW, Gustafson SB.Uroperitoneum as a sequela to urethral calculus in an adult gelding was successfully managed by use of subischial urethrotomy and abdominal drainage. Necrosis of bladder mucosa was seen endoscopically, but a tear or rupture was never identified. Peritonitis developed but was controlled with antibacterial treatment. Although uroperitoneum is usually a sequela to bladder rupture and the ideal treatment is surgical repair, conservative management may be warranted in selected cases.
Held JP, Blackford JT.Three cases of vaginal perforation after coitus are discussed. The most consistent clinical sign is a small amount of blood escaping from the vulvar lips immediately after breeding. Secondary infection and posttraumatic swelling may cause abdominal pain due to rectal impaction. Treatment with high levels of an appropriate antibiotic is important to reduce the risk of a severe infectious peritonitis. The use of artificial insemination or a breeding roll to prevent full intromission is recommended.
