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Topic:Pneumonia

Pneumonia in horses is a respiratory condition characterized by inflammation of the lungs, often caused by bacterial, viral, or fungal infections. It can affect horses of all ages, though young and immunocompromised animals are more susceptible. Clinical signs of pneumonia in horses may include coughing, nasal discharge, fever, and labored breathing. Diagnosis typically involves a combination of clinical examination, imaging techniques such as radiography or ultrasonography, and laboratory tests including blood work and microbial cultures. Treatment strategies vary depending on the underlying cause and may involve antimicrobial therapy, supportive care, and environmental management. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the etiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment of pneumonia in equine populations.
Difference of virulence in causing metritis in horses between heavily encapsulated, less heavily encapsulated and non-capsulated strains of Klebsiella pneumoniae capsular type 1.
The Japanese journal of veterinary research    October 1, 1987   Volume 35, Issue 4 263-273 
Kikuchi N, Hiramune T, Taniyama H, Yanagawa R.No abstract available
Diagnosis of Rhodococcus equi infection in foals by the agar gel diffusion test with protein antigen.
Veterinary microbiology    October 1, 1987   Volume 15, Issue 1-2 105-113 doi: 10.1016/0378-1135(87)90135-0
Nakazawa M, Isayama Y, Kashiwazaki M, Yasui T.A protein antigen that reacted in the agar gel diffusion (AGD) test and which had equi factor(s) activity, was partially purified from the culture supernatant of Rhodococcus equi by successive column chromatography on diethylaminoethyl cellulose and Sepharose 4B. Employing a standard foal serum, the concentration of this antigen was adjusted for the AGD test. Optimal dilutions of the antigen reacted in the AGD test with sera from foals naturally infected with serologically different R. equi. The antigen prepared was considered suitable for use in field surveys of R. equi infection. Accordingly...
Protection of foals against experimental Rhodococcus equi pneumonia by oral immunization.
Canadian journal of veterinary research = Revue canadienne de recherche veterinaire    October 1, 1987   Volume 51, Issue 4 444-447 
Chirino-Trejo JM, Prescott JF, Yager JA.Two groups of three one to three week old foals were immunized orally on four occasions over five weeks with two strains of Rhodococcus equi, a clinical isolate from a pneumonic foal and a laboratory passaged Congo red negative variant of this strain. Three nonimmunized foals of similar age acted as controls. Three weeks after the last immunization, all foals were challenged on five occasions over seven days by aerosol infection with about 10(10) of the pneumonic foal isolate on each occasion. Control foals became seriously ill and were euthanized. Immunization with either strain protected foa...
Therapy of suspected septicemia in neonatal foals using plasma-containing antibodies to core lipopolysaccharide (LPS).
Journal of veterinary internal medicine    October 1, 1987   Volume 1, Issue 4 175-182 doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.1987.tb02012.x
Morris DD, Whitlock RH.Equine antiserum to core lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was evaluated in a double-blind prospective study for therapeutic benefit in suspected septicemia in neonatal foals. Forty foals younger than 7 days of age were included in the study by satisfaction of clinical and laboratory criteria, suggestive of gram-negative septicemia. Twenty-two foals were treated with core LPS antiserum (plasma produced from horses which were hyperimmunized with rough gram-negative mutant bacterin) and 18 foals received "nonimmune" plasma (from horses prior to immunization against core LPS). All foals received antimicro...
Equine pleuropneumonia: the importance of anaerobic bacteria and the potential value of metronidazole in treatment.
The Veterinary record    August 1, 1987   Volume 121, Issue 5 109-110 doi: 10.1136/vr.121.5.109
Mair TS, Yeo SP.No abstract available
Use of erythromycin-rifampin combination in treatment of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia.
Veterinary microbiology    August 1, 1987   Volume 14, Issue 3 337-342 doi: 10.1016/0378-1135(87)90121-0
Hillidge CJ.The selection of lipid-soluble antibiotics capable of intracellular penetration is considered critical for the successful treatment of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia and lung abscesses in foals. Two such antibiotics: erythromycin (25 mg kg-1, three times daily) and rifampin (5 mg kg-1 twice daily) have been used in combination for this purpose at the University of Florida since 1981. Positive evidence of R. equi was present on culture of tracheal aspirates in 57 foals, most of which exhibited radiographic evidence of extensive lung abscessation. The duration of therapy ranged from 4 to 9 weeks. Mi...
The immunological response of foals to Rhodococcus equi: a review.
Veterinary microbiology    August 1, 1987   Volume 14, Issue 3 215-224 doi: 10.1016/0378-1135(87)90108-8
Woolcock JB, Mutimer MD, Bowles PM.Normal horses of all ages regularly show evidence of having responded immunologically to R. equi, thus adding serological support to epidemiological evidence that this organism is a normal intestinal inhabitant. More animals from "diseased" farms show a stronger antibody response when compared with foals from "healthy" farms. Various serological tests have been used to detect evidence of infection and to relate antibody level to severity of disease. Anti-R. equi IgG antibody levels, as measured by ELISA, are raised significantly during natural infection. Clinical severity of pneumonia can be c...
Humoral immune response of foals to experimental infection with Rhodococcus equi.
Veterinary microbiology    August 1, 1987   Volume 14, Issue 3 321-327 doi: 10.1016/0378-1135(87)90119-2
Takai S, Kawazu S, Tsubaki S.Humoral immune response to Rhodococcus equi in experimentally infected foals was studied with the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method. Class-specific antibodies were measured by ELISA in the sera of foals after intratracheal or oral inoculation with R. equi ATCC 6939 or T 48 and in the lung washings of a foal after intratracheal inoculation or of normal horses. After intratracheal or oral inoculation with R. equi, serum antibodies were first detected in immunoglobulin G (IgG) followed by IgM and IgA classes, but significant levels of IgM and IgA developed only in the foal infected...
Rhodococcus equi: equine neutrophil chemiluminescent and bactericidal responses to opsonizing antibody.
Veterinary microbiology    August 1, 1987   Volume 14, Issue 3 277-286 doi: 10.1016/0378-1135(87)90115-5
Martens RJ, Martens JG, Renshaw HW, Hietala SK.The opsonic capacity of serum containing R. equi-specific antibody was compared with antibody-deficient sera using luminol-dependent chemilumenscence (LDCL) and bactericidal assays. These assays incorporated peripheral blood polymorphonuclear neutrophilic leukocytes (PMNL) exposed to R. equi opsonized with neonatal equine pre-colostral serum (control) or serum from foals with R. equi infections (principal). All sera were complement inactivated at 56 degrees C for 30 min. Bacteria were obtained from the lung of a foal with R. equi pneumonia. Neutrophils were obtained from one adult horse for LD...
Dynamics of equi-factor antibodies in sera of foals kept on farms with differing histories of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia.
Veterinary microbiology    August 1, 1987   Volume 14, Issue 3 269-276 doi: 10.1016/0378-1135(87)90114-3
Skalka B.The occurrence of equi-factor antibodies in sera of mares and their foals was studied on two horse breeding farms, one of which (Farm A) had a positive and the other (farm B) a negative history of R. equi infection of foals. The equi-factor neutralization (EFN) and the reverse Elek-Ouchterlony (REO) precipitation were used as assays. On Farm A, 25 mares positive in both tests (EFN+ REO+) and 25 mares negative in both tests (EFN- REO-) was chosen. On Farm B, a group of 25 EFN- REO+ mares and a group of 25 EFN- REO- mares were studied. The first serum samplings in mares were 1 week ante partum a...
The interaction of Rhodococcus equi and foal neutrophils in vitro.
Veterinary microbiology    August 1, 1987   Volume 14, Issue 3 287-294 doi: 10.1016/0378-1135(87)90116-7
Yager JA, Duder CK, Prescott JF, Zink MC.Polymorphonuclear neutrophil leukocytes (PMNL) from 8 healthy foals (2-14 weeks of age) and 2 foals with bacterial pneumonia were separated from whole blood using a 2 step Percoll gradient. Purified PMNL were tested for bactericidal function against Rhodococcus equi and Staphylococcus aureus in the presence of normal horse serum. The percentage uptake after a 15-min pre-incubation of PMNL and bacteria was also calculated. Ultrastructural examination of the interaction of R. equi and normal foal PMNL was performed after 15 min incubation. Results indicated that foal PMNL effectively phagocytose...
The pathogenesis of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals.
Veterinary microbiology    August 1, 1987   Volume 14, Issue 3 225-232 doi: 10.1016/0378-1135(87)90109-x
Yager JA.The pathogenesis of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals is reviewed. The main routes of infection are respiratory and alimentary. The latter is probably the chief route of exposure in all foals and probably leads to development of specific immunity. Susceptible foals, those whose maternal immunity wanes before generation of their own immune response, readily develop disease if exposed aerogenously to sufficient numbers of R. equi. Management and environmental circumstances have a major role to play in determining the magnitude of this challenge and, therefore, in the prevalence of the disease....
Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in 48 foals: response to antimicrobial therapy.
Veterinary microbiology    August 1, 1987   Volume 14, Issue 3 329-336 doi: 10.1016/0378-1135(87)90120-9
Sweeney CR, Sweeney RW, Divers TJ.Case records of 48 foals with pneumonia due to Rhodococcus equi were reviewed. Twenty of the 48 foals survived and 28 died or were euthanized. There was no significant difference between the survivors and non-survivors in the age of onset of illness, duration of illness prior to admission, the mean white blood cell (WBC) count, or the mean plasma fibrinogen content. All foals had R. equi isolated from a tracheobronchial aspirate or lung specimens obtained at necropsy. All organisms were susceptible in vitro (Kirby-Bauer) to erythromycin and gentamicin. Susceptibilities to other drugs were: tri...
Antibody response of horses to Rhodococcus equi antigens. Chirino-Trejo JM, Prescott JF.The antigens extracted from strains belonging to seven capsular serotypes of Rhodococcus equi, as well as from two wild strains isolated from pneumonic foals, were examined. Whole-cell antigens and soluble products present in broth culture supernatants were separated by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, electroblotted onto nitrocellulose, and stained with serum from hyperimmunized rabbits or foals. Foal sera used included sera from pneumonic animals with known titer to equi factors; from animals bled monthly on a farm with enzootic pneumonia, and from animals bled mont...
Pulmonary aspergillosis in a horse with myelomonocytic leukemia.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association    June 15, 1987   Volume 190, Issue 12 1562-1564 
Blue J, Perdrizet J, Brown E.Acute myelomonocytic leukemia was diagnosed in a 2-year-old Standardbred mare that had hind limb edema and fever unresponsive to antibiotics. The mare had anemia, thrombocytopenia, and leukocytosis, with circulating myeloblasts and monocytoid cells. A bone marrow specimen was hypercellular, with myeloblasts and monocytoid cells. Peroxidase, chloroacetate esterase, and alpha naphthyl acetate esterase activities were detected in many bone marrow cells. Interstitial pulmonary densities were seen radiographically. The mare was euthanatized and necropsied. Infiltrates of leukemic cells were found m...
Biochemical characteristics of Klebsiella pneumoniae derived from horses.
Nihon juigaku zasshi. The Japanese journal of veterinary science    April 1, 1987   Volume 49, Issue 2 279-283 doi: 10.1292/jvms1939.49.279
Eguchi M, Yokomizo Y, Kuniyasu C.No abstract available
Isolation of Legionella pneumophila from calves and the prevalence of antibodies in cattle, sheep, horses, antelopes, buffaloes and rabbits.
Veterinary microbiology    April 1, 1987   Volume 13, Issue 4 313-320 doi: 10.1016/0378-1135(87)90062-9
Boldur I, Cohen A, Tamarin-Landau R, Sompolinsky D.The lungs of 139 calves presented for autopsy and 29 healthy slaughtered calves were examined for Legionella by culture and by direct immunofluorescence (DIF) with fluorescein-conjugated antisera. About 17% of the cadaver lungs and 4% of lungs from slaughtered animals were positive by DIF. Legionella organisms were only isolated from the lungs of two cadavers (L. pneumophila, serogroup 1). In a prevalence study of antibodies to Legionella in domestic and wild animals of various species, titers of greater than or equal to 64 were demonstrated by indirect immunofluorescence in sera of 10% of dai...
Neutrophil phagocytic and serum opsonic response of the foal to Corynebacterium equi.
Veterinary immunology and immunopathology    March 1, 1987   Volume 14, Issue 3 279-294 doi: 10.1016/0165-2427(87)90096-1
Hietala SK, Ardans AA.This study was undertaken to examine the neutrophil response to Corynebacterium (Rhodococcus) equi, and to assess the possibility of neutrophil immaturity or malfunction in predisposition to C. equi pneumonia in foals. Neutrophil phagocytosis of Corynebacterium (Rhodococcus) equi was studied in foals from birth to 6 months of age. Chemiluminescence (CL) and bactericidal assays were used to assay the phagocytic response of peripheral blood neutrophils to C. equi in vitro. Results of in vitro bactericidal and CL assays indicate that foal neutrophils are able to ingest and kill C. equi, however a...
A retrospective study of proliferative interstitial lung disease of horses in Florida.
Veterinary pathology    November 1, 1986   Volume 23, Issue 6 750-756 doi: 10.1177/030098588602300614
Buergelt CD, Hines SA, Cantor G, Stirk A, Wilson JH.Proliferative and fibrosing interstitial lung disease was diagnosed in 20 horses submitted for necropsy between 1982 and 1985. Most of the horses were foals ranging from 3 days to 6 months in age. Six adult horses were affected. The macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of the lesions consisted of proliferative interstitial pneumonia and were similar to those of atypical interstitial pneumonia of ruminants. Based on morphologic features of the lesions, a toxic etiology is suspected for the induction of this naturally acquired primary equine lung disorder, but could not be specifically di...
Pleuritis and pneumonia attributed to a conifer twig in a bronchus of a horse.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association    October 1, 1986   Volume 189, Issue 7 797-798 
Hultgren BD, Pearson EG, Lassen ED, Watrous BJ, Hedstrom OR.A conifer twig was responsible for severe fibrinopyogranulomatous adhesive pleuritis and pneumonia in a horse. At necropsy, the twig was found in a terminal bronchus and extended into the lung parenchyma, through the pleura, and into the accumulated exudate. Inhalation of plant material may be a more common cause of pleuritis than previously recognized. Meticulous examination at necropsy would be necessary to make the diagnosis.
Quantitative fecal culture for early diagnosis of Corynebacterium (Rhodococcus) equi enteritis in foals.
Canadian journal of veterinary research = Revue canadienne de recherche veterinaire    October 1, 1986   Volume 50, Issue 4 479-484 
Takai S, Iimori S, Tsubaki S.Quantitative culture of Corynebacterium (Rhodococcus) equi from feces of 17 foals on a farm (A) with an endemic C. equi infection problem and 26 foals on a farm (B) without the disease in the past decade was done with a selective medium at weekly or monthly intervals from April to August of 1984. Corynebacterium equi was observed in the feces of 16 of 17 foals on farm A, and 19 of 26 foals on farm B. The mean viable count of C. equi in one gram of feces was 4.1 +/- 3.7 (log10) on farm A, and 3.9 +/- 3.4 (log10) on farm B. Corynebacterium equi was recovered from feces of foals as young as two w...
Septic pleuritis associated with an inhaled foreign body in a pony.
The Veterinary record    September 13, 1986   Volume 119, Issue 11 274-275 doi: 10.1136/vr.119.11.274
O'Brien JK.No abstract available
Review of Corynebacterium (Rhodococcus) equi lung abscesses in foals: pathogenesis, diagnosis and treatment.
The Veterinary record    September 13, 1986   Volume 119, Issue 11 261-264 doi: 10.1136/vr.119.11.261
Hillidge CJ.Corynebacterium (Rhodococcus) equi is becoming increasingly significant as a cause of bronchopneumonia and lung abscessation in foals. The organism can survive within macrophages and may thus escape normal pulmonary defence mechanisms, particularly in immunocompromised animals. The disease has hitherto been associated with mortality rates as high as 80 per cent, partly as a result of inappropriate therapy. The selection of lipid-soluble antibiotics capable of intracellular penetration is critical for the successful treatment of C equi lung abscesses. A combination of two such antibiotics, eryt...
Use of neomycin for treatment of Rhodococcus equi pneumonia in foals.
Australian veterinary journal    May 1, 1986   Volume 63, Issue 5 163 doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.1986.tb02959.x
Barton MD.No abstract available
Isolation of Streptococcus pneumoniae from the respiratory tract of horses.
Equine veterinary journal    May 1, 1986   Volume 18, Issue 3 183-186 doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1986.tb03591.x
Burrell MH, Mackintosh ME, Taylor CE.Streptococcus pneumoniae was isolated from nasopharyngeal swabs and tracheal washings taken from Thoroughbred horses in training at three of four separate stables that were sampled during investigations into respiratory disease. The growth of Strep pneumoniae in culture was enhanced by an environment enriched with carbon dioxide. In one stable, five of 15 horses that were sampled repeatedly were found to carry the organism for at least four months. There was an apparent association between lower respiratory tract inflammatory disease and heavy growths (10(6) to 10(8) colony forming units/ml) p...
Corynebacterium equi Infections in Horses, 1958-1984: A Review of 131 Cases.
The Canadian veterinary journal = La revue veterinaire canadienne    May 1, 1986   Volume 27, Issue 5 213-217 
Zink MC, Yager JA, Smart NL.Of 131 cases of Corynebacterium equi infection in horses submitted for necropsy to the Ontario Veterinary College or Veterinary Laboratory Services, OMAF, Guelph, Ontario from 1958 to 1984, 115 were diagnosed as suppurative pneumonia, and of these 55 had associated ulcerative enterocolitis. Only five animals had intestinal involvement without pulmonary lesions. The remaining 11 cases included arthritis/cellulitis, skin abscesses and submandibular lymphadenitis. While the lung, intestine and associated lymph nodes yielded C. equi most frequently, in 21% of cases C. equi was also cultured from p...
Vertebral body osteomyelitis in the horse.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association    March 15, 1986   Volume 188, Issue 6 632-634 
Markel MD, Madigan JE, Lichtensteiger CA, Large SM, Hornof WJ.Over a 4-year period, vertebral body abscess was diagnosed in 5 young cattle. The laboratory findings in most of these cases did not suggest a diagnosis of vertebral body abscess. The most important basis for diagnosis of this condition was a thorough neurologic examination. In 4 cases, necropsy revealed abscesses in the lungs or thoracic cavity as well, suggesting that a history of pneumonia preceding paresis may favor the diagnosis of vertebral body abscess.
In vitro bactericidal efficacy of equine polymorphonuclear leukocytes against Corynebacterium equi.
American journal of veterinary research    February 1, 1986   Volume 47, Issue 2 438-440 
Yager JA, Foster SF, Zink MC, Prescott JF, Lumsden JH.Polymorphonuclear leukocytes from adult horses were separated from whole blood, using a 2-step Percoll gradient, and were tested for bactericidal function against Corynebacterium equi. Staphylococcus aureus, an organism against which equine neutrophils have proved efficacy, was a positive control. The percentage of uptake after a 15-minute preincubation of the neutrophils and bacteria in the presence of normal horse serum was also calculated. The results indicated that equine neutrophils effectively phagocytosed and killed C equi and S aureus. The percentage of uptake for S aureus (95% +/- 3%)...
Pharyngeal trauma from endotracheal intubation in a colt.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association    November 1, 1985   Volume 187, Issue 9 944-946 
Brock KA.A pharyngeal performation, probably associated with endotracheal intubation, occurred in a healthy 4 1/2-month-old colt. Inhalation anesthesia was carried out for elective surgery, but acute cervical cellulitis, pleuritis, and pneumonia developed after the surgery. Antibacterial and supportive therapy was ineffective.
Anaerobic bacteria in 21 horses with pleuropneumonia.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association    October 1, 1985   Volume 187, Issue 7 721-724 
Sweeney CR, Divers TJ, Benson CE.Anaerobic bacteria are important and overlooked bacterial pathogens of the lower respiratory tract in horses. Twenty-one of 46 horses with pleuropneumonia had anaerobic bacteria isolated from pleural fluid or from tracheobronchial aspirate. Bacteroides oralis and B melaninogenicus were the anaerobes most frequently isolated. Survival was significantly less for horses from which anaerobes were isolated than for horses from which anaerobes were not isolated. Putrid odor was associated with the pleural fluid and/or breath in 62% of the horses from which anaerobes were isolated. In these horses, t...
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