Vaccination in horses involves the administration of biological preparations designed to stimulate the equine immune system to recognize and combat specific pathogens. Vaccines are formulated to prevent or reduce the severity of infectious diseases that can affect equine health and performance. Common vaccines for horses include those for equine influenza, tetanus, equine herpesvirus, and West Nile virus. The administration schedule and type of vaccine can vary based on factors such as geographic location, age, and use of the horse. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the development, efficacy, and safety of vaccines in horses, as well as their impact on equine health management.
Behrendt D, Burger D, Gremmes S, Szunyog K, Röthemeier S, Sieme H.Stallion-like or aggressive behaviour in mares affected by unilateral granulosa theca cell tumour (GTCT) is well-known, but use of a GnRH-vaccine as an alternative to surgical removal of the neoplastic ovary has not been investigated. Objective: To determine the effect of immunisation against GnRH on ovarian size, testosterone concentration, Anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) concentration, and owner-reported behaviour in four mares affected by unilateral GTCT. Methods: Retrospective case report. Methods: A presumptive diagnosis of GTCT was made in four mares based on clinical signs, behavioural ch...
Guerrero-Carvajal F, Bravo-Barriga D, Martín-Cuervo M, Aguilera-Sepúlveda P, Ferraguti M, Jiménez-Clavero MÁ, Llorente F, Alonso JM, Frontera E.West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne emerging virus in Europe with capacity to cause neurological complications such as encephalitis or meningoencephalitis in humans, birds or equids. In Spain, WNV is actively circulating in mosquitoes, birds and horses in different regions, but never has been deeply studied in Extremadura. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the seroprevalence of WNV in equids of those areas and to analyse the risk factors associated with exposure to the virus. A total of 199 out of 725 equids presented antibodies against WNV by competition ELISA (27.45%), w...
Reemers S, Sonnemans D, Horspool L, van Bommel S, Cao Q, van de Zande S.Vaccination is an effective tool to limit equine influenza virus (EIV H3N8) infection, a contagious respiratory disease with potentially huge economic impact. The study assessed the effects of antigenic change on vaccine efficacy and the need for strain update. Horses were vaccinated (V1 and V2) with an ISCOMatrix-adjuvanted, whole inactivated virus vaccine (Equilis Prequenza, group 2, FC1 and European strains) or a carbomer-adjuvanted, modified vector vaccine (ProteqFlu, group 3, FC1 and FC2 HA genes). Serology (SRH, HI, VN), clinical signs and viral shedding were assessed in comparison to un...
Williamson KM, Wheeler S, Kerr J, Bennett J, Freeman P, Kohlhagen J, Peel AJ, Eby P, Merritt T, Housen T, Dalton C, Durrheim DN.In June 2019 the first equine case of Hendra virus in the Hunter Valley, New South Wales, Australia was detected. An urgent human and animal health response took place, involving biosecurity measures, contact tracing, promotion of equine vaccinations and investigation of flying fox activity in the area. No human or additional animal cases occurred. Equine vaccination uptake increased by over 30-fold in the surrounding region in the three months following the case. Black flying fox and grey-headed flying fox species were detected in the Valley. The incident prompted review of Hendra virus resou...
Rodríguez M, Joseph S, Pfeffer M, Raghavan R, Wernery U.African horse sickness (AHS) is a serious viral disease of equids resulting in the deaths of many equids in sub-Saharan Africa that has been recognized for centuries. This has significant economic impact on the horse industry, despite the good husbandry practices. Currently, prevention and control of the disease is based on administration of live attenuated vaccines and control of the arthropod vectors. Results: A total of 29 horses in 2 groups, were vaccinated. Eighteen horses in Group 1 were further divided into 9 subgroups of 2 horses each, were individually immunised with one of 1 to 9 AHS...
Kinsley R, Pronost S, De Bock M, Temperton N, Daly JM, Paillot R, Scott S.Equine influenza is a major respiratory disease of horses that is largely controlled by vaccination in some equine populations. Virus-neutralising antibodies, the mainstay of the protective immune response, are problematic in assaying for equine influenza virus, as most strains do not replicate efficiently in cell culture. Surrogate measures of protective antibody responses include the haemagglutination inhibition (HI) test and single radial haemolysis (SRH) assay. For this study, a pseudotyped virus, bearing an envelope containing the haemagglutinin (HA) from the Florida clade 2 equine influe...
Ohta M, Bannai H, Nemoto M, Kambayashi Y, Tamura N, Tsujimura K.An inactivated equine influenza virus (EIV) vaccine and a live equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) vaccine are usually administered concurrently to Thoroughbred racehorses in Japan. The objective of this study was to evaluate whether concurrent administration of an inactivated EIV vaccine and a live EHV-1 vaccine in Thoroughbred racehorses influences the antibody response against EIV. We compared the antibody response against EIV in horses administered both vaccines on the same day (Group A; n = 27) and the response in horses administered an inactivated EIV vaccine first and then a live EHV-1 v...
Kim HH, Yang DK, Ji M, Lee SK, Hyun BH.Japanese encephalitis is one of the most important mosquito-borne and zoonotic diseases in Asia and the Pacific region. Although the dominant Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) genotype has shifted from G3 to G1 in Korea since 1990, a G3 strain (Anyang 300) has been used in vaccines for horses for almost 40 years. This study aimed to investigate the seroconversion rates and geometric mean titers (GMTs) of virus-neutralizing antibodies (VNAs) against JEV G1 and G3 in horses immunized with the G3 vaccine. Methods: Serum samples of 1,231 horses immunized with the Anyang 300 vaccine were collected ...
Duran MC, Dumrath CAC, Bartmann CP, Medina Torres CE, Moschos A, Goehring LS.Serum amyloid A (SAA) is a sensitive acute-phase response (APR) marker in equids. Prominent APRs with elevations of SAA concentrations ([SAA]) have been reported after vaccination. The authors hypothesized that vaccination with an inactivated EHV-1/-4 vaccine would cause increase in [SAA] and antibody responses and that higher [SAA] would be positively correlated with the antibody titer in both equids. Twelve Haflinger horses and 12 mules were included in this longitudinal prospective study. All horses and mules were vaccinated with a commercially available EHV-1/-4 vaccine. Blood was sampled ...
EHV1 and EHV4 are the most important herpesviruses in horses. Repeated cases of abortion in mares regularly vaccinated, prompted us to investigate the immune response after vaccination with the same inactivated vaccine, but with three different protocols. Eighteen mares were chosen and randomly divided in three study groups (G-G-G) and a control group (Ctrl). For serologic and PCR investigations nasal swabs, sera and blood were collected. The protocol used in G (4 doses) increased the titer recorded by ELISA and seroneutralization (SN). Poor agreement and no correlation were observed in titer ...
Can FK, Tekin E, Sezen S, Clutter P.The aim of the present study was to evaluate the demographic characteristics, exposure features, and prophylactic care aspects of cases that presented to the emergency department of 1 state hospital in Turkey between 2013 and 2017 because of the risk of rabies contact. Methods: Data from the retrospective cohort study were obtained from ED records of Erzurum Palandöken State Hospital between August 2013 and June 2017 regarding patients presenting to emergency service after the risk of rabies contact. Evaluation forms included demographic characteristics of the patients, contact type, contacte...
Bambra W, Daly JM, Kendall NR, Gardner DS, Brennan M, Kydd JH.Equine influenza virus is a highly contagious respiratory pathogen that causes pyrexia, anorexia, lethargy and coughing in immunologically naïve horses. Vaccines against equine influenza are available and vaccination is mandatory for horses that participate in affiliated competitions, but this group forms a small proportion of the total horse population. The aims of this study were to: i) identify the equine influenza vaccination rate as reported in 2016 by horse owners in the United Kingdom (UK); ii) examine the demographics of owners and horses which were associated with significantly lower...
Salco R, Bowers J, Hernandez V, Barnum S, Pusterla N.This study aimed to determine if the administration of a modified live equine influenza virus vaccine (FluAvert) to foals would positively impact their health and reduce colonization of their upper airways with equine herpesviruses (EHV) during the weaning period. A single dose of FluAvert was given to 20 healthy foals 7 days prior to being weaned; 20 healthy foals served as unvaccinated controls. Nasal secretions and blood were collected before vaccination, the day of weaning, and weekly thereafter for 3 weeks. Nasal secretions were tested by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) for ...
Castro ER, Perez R, Rodriguez S, Bassetti L, Negro R, Vidal R.Equine influenza is one of the major respiratory infectious diseases in horses. In 2018, equine influenza virus (EIV) was confirmed as the cause of outbreaks of respiratory disease in horses in Chile and Argentina. In the same year, for the first time in Uruguay, EIV infection was confirmed by isolation and molecular analysis to be the cause of respiratory disease among hundreds of clinically affected thoroughbred horses in training and racing facilities. The virus was detected in nasopharyngeal swabs by a pan-reactive influenza type A realtime reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (...
Bueno BL, Câmara RJF, Moreira MVL, Galinari GCF, Souto FM, Victor RM, Bicalho JM, Ecco R, Dos Reis JKP.Equine infectious anemia (EIA), a disease caused by equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV), is considered an obstacle to the development of the horse industry. There is no treatment or vaccine available for EIA, and its pathogenesis, as well as the immune response against the virus, is not fully understood. Therefore, an immunohistochemistry assay was developed for the detection of viral antigens in tissues of equids naturally infected with EIAV. Sections of organs of six equids from Apodi-RN, Brazil, that tested positive for EIA by serological tests (ELISA and AGID) were fixed in 10% formalin ...
Charbonneau ARL, Taylor E, Mitchell CJ, Robinson C, Cain AK, Leigh JA, Maskell DJ, Waller AS.The availability of next-generation sequencing techniques provides an unprecedented opportunity for the assignment of gene function. subspecies is the causative agent of strangles in horses, one of the most prevalent and important diseases of equids worldwide. However, the live attenuated vaccines that are utilized to control this disease cause adverse reactions in some animals. Here, we employ transposon-directed insertion-site sequencing (TraDIS) to identify genes that are required for the fitness of in whole equine blood or in the presence of HO to model selective pressures exerted by th...
Chambers TM.Equine influenza virus (EIV) is a common respiratory pathogen of horses and other equids in most parts of the world. EIV are Type A influenza viruses and two subtypes are known: H3N8 and H7N7. Both are believed to have evolved from avian influenza virus ancestors. The H3N8 subtype circulates widely, but the H7N7 subtype is thought to be extinct. The clinical disease in horses, caused by either subtype, is an upper respiratory infection of varying severity depending upon the immune status of the individual animal. It is not normally life-threatening in itself except in very young foals; however...
Rutkowska DA, Mokoena NB, Tsekoa TL, Dibakwane VS, O'Kennedy MM.African horse sickness (AHS) is a severe arthropod-borne viral disease of equids, with a mortality rate of up to 95% in susceptible naïve horses. Due to safety concerns with the current live, attenuated AHS vaccine, alternate safe and effective vaccination strategies such as virus-like particles (VLPs) are being investigated. Transient plant-based expression systems are a rapid and highly scalable means of producing such African horse sickness virus (AHSV) VLPs for vaccine purposes. Results: In this study, we demonstrated that transient co-expression of the four AHSV capsid proteins in agroin...
Knödlseder JM, Fell SF, Straubinger RK.A total of 143 horses were included in a study to test a commercial vaccine against Lyme borreliosis. The vaccine contained three different antigens (outer surface protein A, OspA) to prevent the infection with spirochetes - B.burgdorferi sensu stricto, B. afzelii and B. garinii. Horses in Group A (49 animals) received two vaccinations on days 0 and 14 and a booster on day 365, whereas 50 horses in Group B received an additional booster vaccination on day 180. Group C (44 animals) was not immunized. Total antibody levels and specific OspA antibody responses were assessed quantitatively and qua...
Kydd JH, Hannant D, Robinson RS, Bryant N, Osterrieder N.Equid herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) causes respiratory and neurological disease and late gestation abortion in pregnant mares. Current vaccines contain either inactivated or live EHV-1, but fail to provide complete clinical or virological protection, namely prevention of nasopharyngeal shedding and cell-associated viraemia. Thus, the development of novel products, such as modified live virus (MLV) vaccines which stimulate virus-specific, humoral and cell mediated immune responses more effectively remains a priority. Two groups of weaned foals (n = 6 each group) were used in a longitudinal, prospec...
Blanco-Lobo P, Rodriguez L, Reedy S, Oladunni FS, Nogales A, Murcia PR, Chambers TM, Martinez-Sobrido L.Vaccination remains the most effective approach for preventing and controlling equine influenza virus (EIV) in horses. However, the ongoing evolution of EIV has increased the genetic and antigenic differences between currently available vaccines and circulating strains, resulting in suboptimal vaccine efficacy. As recommended by the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE), the inclusion of representative strains from clade 1 and clade 2 Florida sublineages of EIV in vaccines may maximize the protection against presently circulating viral strains. In this study, we used reverse genetics tech...
Olguin-Perglione C, Vissani MA, Alamos F, Tordoya MS, Barrandeguy M.Equine influenza is an important cause of respiratory disease of horses worldwide. The equine influenza virus (EIV) undergoes antigenic drift through the accumulation of amino acid substitutions in the viral proteins, which may lead to vaccine breakdown. Objective: To describe the epidemiological findings and the molecular characteristics of the EIV detected during the multifocal outbreak that occurred in Argentina between March and July 2018 and evidence a vaccine breakdown. Methods: Observational, descriptive study. Methods: Virus was detected in nasopharyngeal swabs using real-time reverse ...
Dennis SJ, Meyers AE, Hitzeroth II, Rybicki EP.African horse sickness is a devastating disease that causes great suffering and many fatalities amongst horses in sub-Saharan Africa. It is caused by nine different serotypes of the orbivirus African horse sickness virus (AHSV) and it is spread by Culicoid midges. The disease has significant economic consequences for the equine industry both in southern Africa and increasingly further afield as the geographic distribution of the midge vector broadens with global warming and climate change. Live attenuated vaccines (LAV) have been used with relative success for many decades but carry the risk o...
Vianna AM, Santos AC, Cunha RC, de Souza Stori de Lara AP, Weege GB, Leivas Leite FP.Equine theileriosis is a severe equine disease caused by the protozoan Theileria equi, which is prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas. In this study, a recombinant equi merozoite antigen-2 (rEMA-2) of T. equi was used as an immunogen. Two groups of 10 mice each were divided into control and vaccinated groups. Sixty mares seronegative for theileriosis were divided in two groups, one vaccinated and another group as a control animal. Mice and mares of the vaccinated groups were inoculated with 150 μL of the vaccine containing 50 μg of rEMA-2 and 2 mL of the vaccine containing 200 ...
Prutton JSW, Barnum S, Pusterla N.Equine coronavirus (ECoV) is considered an emerging enteric virus with reported morbidity rates ranging from 10 to 83% and fatality rates ranging from 7 to 27% in adult horses; a vaccine for ECoV is currently not available. This study investigated the safety, humoral response and viral shedding in horses inoculated with a commercially available modified-live bovine coronavirus (BCoV) vaccine. Twelve healthy adult horses were vaccinated twice, 3 weeks apart, either orally, intranasally or intrarectally. Two healthy unvaccinated horses served as sentinel controls. Following each vaccine adminis...
With outbreaks of equine influenza continuing to be reported in the UK, Richard Newton and Fleur Whitlock of the Animal Health Trust discusses practical steps that vets can promote and practise to reduce the risk of the virus spreading.
Bannai H, Tsujimura K, Nemoto M, Ohta M, Yamanaka T, Kokado H, Matsumura T.Equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) infection is a major cause of pyrexias in winter among Japanese racehorses. In 2014-2015, the Japan Racing Association (JRA) changed the EHV-1 vaccine from an inactivated vaccine to a live vaccine (both produced by Nisseiken). To evaluate the effect of changing the vaccines, the capacities of these vaccines to induce virus-neutralizing (VN) antibodies were compared, and an epizootiological investigation of EHV-1 was performed at the JRA Ritto Training Center during epizootic periods from 2010-2011 to 2016-2017. Results: Three-year-old horses that received the ...
Gates MC, Walker J, Zito S, Dale A. To describe the demographics of and predictors for pet ownership, reasons for visiting a veterinarian, and pet-related expenditure in pet owners in New Zealand. A cross-sectional online survey was conducted from 18-22 June 2015 using a permission-based panel of New Zealand residents aged ≥18 years. Questions included demographics of respondents, number of pets and reasons for owning or not owning pets, number of visits and reasons for visiting a veterinarian, and pet-related expenditure. Of the 1,572 respondents who completed the survey, 1,013 (64.4%) owned ≥1 pet. Of these, 443 owned d...
Roczo-Farkas S, Cowley D, Bines JE.This report, from the Australian Rotavirus Surveillance Program and collaborating laboratories Australia-wide, describes the rotavirus genotypes identified in children and adults with acute gastroenteritis during the period 1 January to 31 December 2017. During this period, 2,285 faecal specimens were referred for rotavirus G and P genotype analysis, including 1,103 samples that were confirmed as rotavirus positive. Of these, 1,014/1,103 were wildtype rotavirus strains and 89/1,103 were identified as rotavirus vaccine-like. Genotype analysis of the 1,014 wildtype rotavirus samples from both ch...
Newton JR, Verheyen K, Wood JL, Yates PJ, Mumford JA.In 1998, equine influenza was diagnosed by serology and nucleoprotein enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay as the cause of acute respiratory disease in vaccinated and unvaccinated horses in the UK. The signs were generally milder in vaccinated horses and completely susceptible animals showed the most severe signs, including pyrexia, inappetence, coughing, mucopurulent nasal discharge and secondary bacterial pneumonia. In a detailed investigation of an outbreak among 52 vaccinated thoroughbreds in a flat racing yard, more than 60 per cent of the horses seroconverted on the evidence of paired serum...
Horohov DW, Adams AA, Chambers TM.It is widely recognized that advanced age is associated with alterations in immunological responses that likely contribute to increased morbidity and mortality in the elderly population. This decreased efficacy of the immune system with age is referred to as 'immunosenescence' and has been reported for a number of species. Similar age-related changes are seen in horses and are manifested as decreased responsiveness to vaccination in vivo and diminished proliferative responses to mitogens in vitro. The underlying mechanism responsible for these impaired immunological responses remains unknown. ...
Raabe ML, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC.We have previously demonstrated a high propensity for enhancement of virus replication and disease resulting from experimental immunization of ponies with a baculovirus recombinant envelope (rgp90) vaccine from equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV). The current studies were undertaken to examine the correlation between the observed in vivo vaccine enhancement and in vitro assays for antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE) of EIAV replication. Toward this goal an optimized EIAV in vitro enhancement assay was developed using primary equine macrophage cells and used to evaluate the enhancement prope...
von Teichman BF, Smit TK.The polyvalent African Horsesickness (AHS) attenuated live vaccine (ALV) produced by Onderstepoort Biological Products (OBP) Ltd., South Africa, has been associated with some safety concerns and alleged cases of vaccine failure or vaccine-induced disease. The risk of reassortment and reversion to virulence is a common concern associated with the use of ALVs, and a phenomenon reported for viruses with segmented RNA genomes. The purpose of this study was to determine whether or not reassortment of AHS vaccine strains could result in reassortants and reversion to virulence and therefore cause AHS...
Lee H, Yun SH, Hyon JY, Lee SY, Yi YS, Choi CW, Jun S, Park EC, Kim SI.Streptococcus equi subspecies equi is a pathogenic bacterium that causes strangles, a highly contagious respiratory infection in horses and other equines. The limitations of current vaccines against S. equi infection warrants the development of an affordable, safe, and effective vaccine. Because gram-positive extracellular vesicles (EVs) transport various immunogenic antigens, they are attractive vaccine candidates. Here, we purified the EVs of S. equi ATCC 39506 and evaluated them as a vaccine candidate against S. equi infection in mice. As an initial step, comparative proteomic analysis was ...
González-Iglesias P, Scortti M, MacArthur I, Hapeshi A, Rodriguez H, Prescott JF, Vazquez-Boland JA.The pathogenic actinomycete Rhodococcus equi causes severe purulent lung infections in foals and immunocompromised people. Although relatively unsusceptible to R. equi, mice are widely used for in vivo studies with this pathogen. The most commonly employed mouse model is based on systemic (intravenous) infection and determination of R. equi burdens in spleen and liver. Here, we investigated the murine lung for experimental infection studies with R. equi. Using a 10(7)CFU intranasal challenge in BALB/c mice, virulent R. equi consistently survived in quantifiable numbers up to 10 days in the lun...
Turner A, Kirkpatrick JF.Contraception is becoming a common approach for the management of captive and wild ungulates yet there are few data for contraceptive effects on entire populations. Management-level treatment of mares with porcine zona pellucida (PZP) vaccine resulted in zero population growth of the Assateague Island wild horse population within 1 year of initiation of treatment. Contraceptive efficacy was 90% for mares treated twice in the first year and annually thereafter. For mares given a single initial inoculation, contraceptive efficacy was 78%. The effort required to achieve zero population growth dec...
Paillot R, Prowse L, Donald C, Medcalf E, Montesso F, Bryant N, Watson J, Jeggo M, Elton D, Newton R, Trail P, Barnes H.An outbreak of H3N8 Equine Influenza virus (EIV) that occurred in vaccinated horses in Japan was caused by a genetically divergent EIV isolate of the Florida clade 1 sub-lineage. This virus subsequently entered Australia where it infected thousands of immunologically naïve horses. The objective of this study was to evaluate the ability of a non-updated whole inactivated equine influenza (EI) vaccine to protect if used in the face of an outbreak induced by a virus similar to the ones circulating in Japan and Australia in 2007. Seven naïve Welsh mountain ponies were immunised twice with the co...
Palmer JE.E. risticii, the cause of classic Potomac horse fever, is now known to produce two disease syndromes: EEC and EEA. The pathogen appears to commonly infect horses based on seroepidemiologic studies; however, the method of transmission remains unknown. The most common clinical disease is EEC, commonly called Potomac horse fever, which presents a wide spectrum of clinical signs. Diagnosis is currently dependent on serology, which frequently does not lead to a definitive diagnosis and at best results in a retrospective diagnosis. A new diagnostic approach, polymerase chain reaction, may offer a ra...
House JA, Lombard M, Dubourget P, House C, Mebus CA.The immunity induced by two inoculations of a commercial inactivated African horse sickness (AHS) serotype 4 (AHSV-4) vaccine was studied. No adverse reaction was observed in five horses following vaccination. Following challenge-inoculation, no clinical signs attributable to AHS, no viraemia indicating infection, and no anamnestic response was observed in the vaccinated ponies. Two control ponies developed clinical signs typical of AHS, high levels of viraemia, and died 7 and 8 days postchallenge-inoculation. The quality of immunity induced by the two-dose regimen was compared with a one-dose...
Jonsdottir S, Svansson V, Stefansdottir SB, Schüpbach G, Rhyner C, Marti E, Torsteinsdottir S.Insect bite hypersensitivity (IBH) is an IgE-mediated dermatitis of horses caused by bites of Culicoides insects, not indigenous to Iceland. Horses born in Iceland and exported to Culicoides-rich areas are frequently affected with IBH. The aims of the study were to compare immunization with recombinant allergens using the adjuvant aluminum hydroxide (Alum) alone or combined with monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA) for development of a preventive immunization against IBH. Twelve healthy Icelandic horses were vaccinated intralymphatically three times with 10 μg each of four recombinant Culicoides nub...
MacKay RJ.All gray horses inherited a single gene mutation, STX17G, that unbalances melanocyte behavior to cause graying and propensities to develop vitiligo and melanoma. The coat color genes ASIPa and MC1RE add risk such that relative likelihood of melanoma based on pregraying coat color is black > bay > chestnut. Melanomas begin at about 4 years. Locoregional control of melanoma masses depends on surgical removal and/or intralesional chemotherapy (possibly with adjunctive hyperthermia or electroporation). Systemic treatment is not evidence based but immunomodulators (cimetidine, levamisole) and ...
McCollum WH.Nineteen horses with no prior experience with equine arteritis virus (EAV) were inoculated IM with an avirulent live-virus vaccine against equine viral arteritis; the vaccinal virus had been passaged serially 131 times in primary cell cultures of equine kidney, 111 times in primary cell cultures of rabbit kidney, and 16 times in an equine dermis cell line (EAV HK-131/RK-111/ED-16). Three or 4 of the vaccinated horses each, along with appropriate nonvaccinated controls, were inoculated nasally with virulent EAV at each of months 3, 6, 9, 12, 18, and 24 after they were vaccinated. The following ...
Fitzpatrick DR, Studdert MJ.The specificity of selected immune responses to equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) and type 4 (EHV-4) was examined in 3 colostrum-deprived specific-pathogen-free foals. Single foals were vaccinated with inactivated EHV-1, inactivated EHV-4, or control cell lysate plus adjuvant followed by successive intranasal challenge exposures with EHV-1 and EHV-4 or with EHV-4 and EHV-1. Vaccination with inactivated virus preparations elicited cellular immune responses and antibody which were augmented by subsequent challenge exposures. Cellular immune responses, as measured by in vitro lymphocyte blastogen...
Rosas CT, Tischer BK, Perkins GA, Wagner B, Goodman LB, Osterrieder N.The immunogenicity in horses of a recombinant equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) vaccine expressing West Nile virus (WNV) prM and E proteins was studied. To construct the recombinant EHV-1, two-step en passant mutagenesis was employed for manipulation of a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) of vaccine strain RacH. Recombinant EHV-1 stably expressed the WNV prM and E proteins as demonstrated by indirect immunofluorescence and Western blotting. In addition, growth properties in vitro of the EHV-1/WNV recombinant were found to not be significantly different from those of the parental virus. To ...
Glass K, Wood JL, Mumford JA, Jesset D, Grenfell BT.This paper demonstrates that a simple stochastic model can capture the features of an epidemic of equine influenza in unvaccinated horses. When the model is modified to consider vaccinated horses, we find that vaccination dramatically reduces the incidence and size of epidemics. Although occasional larger outbreaks can still occur, these are exceptional. We then look at the effects of vaccination on a yard of horses, and in particular at the relationship between pre-challenge antibody level and quantity of virus shed when challenged with the virus. While on average, a high antibody level impli...
Barber TL, Walton TE, Lewis KJ.Twenty-nine horses were vaccinated with a trivalent (Venezuelan, eastern, and western) inactivated equine encephalomyelitis virus vaccine. The vaccine purchased for this study was the only one licensed and commercially available in May, 1975. Plaque-neutralizing and hemagglutinin-inhibiting antibodies in response to each of the 3 equine encephalomyelitis viruses were determined after vaccination. Horses had rising levels of plaque-neutralizing and hemagglutinin-inhibiting antibodies shortly after injection with the 1st and 2nd doses of the vaccine (given 3 weeks apart) and were refractory to c...
Duggan JM, Coates DM, Ulaeto DO.Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis (VEE) virus is an important human and veterinary pathogen of Central and South America. The virus can cause widespread epidemics, affecting hundreds of thousands of horses, and thousands of humans. Detection of the virus early in infection and in mosquito populations may allow epidemics to be predicted such that suitable prophylaxis, such as vaccination, can be used to reduce disease severity and transmission. The sensitivity and specificity of current immunoassays, based on conventional monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies, needs to be improved for the diag...
Hainisch EK, Abel-Reichwald H, Shafti-Keramat S, Pratscher B, Corteggio A, Borzacchiello G, Wetzig M, Jindra C, Tichy A, Kirnbauer R, Brandt S.We have previously shown that immunization of horses with bovine papillomavirus type 1 (BPV1) L1 virus-like particles (VLPs) is safe and highly immunogenic and that BPV1 and bovine papillomavirus type 2 (BPV2) are closely related serotypes. Here we evaluated the protective potential of a BPV1 L1 VLP vaccine against experimental BPV1 and BPV2 challenge and studied the safety and immunogenicity of a bivalent equine papillomavirus type 2 (EcPV2)/BPV1 L1 VLP vaccine. Fourteen healthy horses were immunized with BPV1 L1 VLPs (100 µg per injection) plus adjuvant on days 0 and 28, while seven remai...
Patel JR, Földi J, Bateman H, Williams J, Didlick S, Stark R.The temperature sensitive and host range mutant clone 147 of equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) was assessed for its ability to protect conventional, susceptible adult horses against respiratory infection by EHV-1 and equine herpesvirus 4 (EHV-4). Intranasal (IN) vaccination with 5.2 log(10) TCID(50) did not cause adverse clinical reactions although a limited virus shedding and viraemia (leukocytes) was observed in 11 of 15 and 10 of 15 vaccinated horses respectively. All 15 vaccinated horses showed a significant seroresponse to both EHV-1 and EHV-4 for virus neutralising (VN) antibody. None of 14 c...
Yamanaka T, Cullinane A, Gildea S, Bannai H, Nemoto M, Tsujimura K, Kondo T, Matsumura T.The protection induced by an equine influenza (EI) vaccine strain depends on its antigenic relatedness to the challenge virus. Although the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) recommend that both Florida sublineage clade 1 (Fc1) and clade 2 (Fc2) viruses should be included in EI vaccines, Japanese EI vaccines have not, thus far, been updated to include a Fc2 virus. Objective: To evaluate the efficacy of antibodies raised against Japanese EI vaccine strains in the neutralisation of recent Fc2 viruses. Methods: Antigenic analysis. Methods: Virus neutralisation tests were performed using a...
Lopez AM, Hecker R, Mutwiri G, van Drunen Littel-van den Hurk S, Babiuk LA, Townsend HG.Previous studies have shown that protection against equine influenza virus (EIV) is partially mediated by virus-specific IgGa and IgGb. In this study we tested whether addition of a CpG ODN formulation to a commercial killed virus vaccine would enhance EIV-specific IgGa and IgGb antibody responses, and improve protection against an experimental EIV challenge. Thirty naïve horses were assigned to one of three groups and vaccinated as follows: 10 were given vaccine (Encevac TC4, Intervet Inc.) alone, 10 were given vaccine plus 0.25 mg CpG ODN 2007 formulated with 30% Emulsigen (CpG/Em), and 10 ...
Breathnach CC, Yeargan MR, Sheoran AS, Allen GP.Equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) remains a frequent cause of upper respiratory tract infection and abortion in horses worldwide. However, little is known about the local antibody response elicited in the upper airways of horses following exposure to EHV-1. This study analysed the mucosal humoral immune response of weanling foals following experimental infection with virulent EHV-1, or vaccination with either of 2 commercial vaccines. Twenty weanlings were assigned to 5 groups and were inoculated with, or vaccinated against, EHV-1 following different regimens. Finally, all weanlings were simultaneo...
Patel JR, Bateman H, Williams J, Didlick S.A German abortion isolate of EHV-1 (strain M8) was grown in equine dermal (ED) cells at a low multiplicity of infection in presence of 5-bromo-2-deoxy uridine. The resulting stock was dialysed, titrated and cloned by terminal dilution in ED cells grown in 96-well microtitration plates. Of 192 clones each originating from a single focus, clone 147 (C147) was found to be restricted for growth at and above temperatures of 38.5 degrees C. It was also restricted for growth at 37 degrees C in rabbit kidney (RK-13) cells which are widely used for the isolation and titration of EHV-1; hence clone 147 ...
Zevenhoven-Dobbe JC, Greve S, van Tol H, Spaan WJM, Snijder EJ.Equine arteritis virus (EAV) contains seven structural proteins that are all required to produce infectious progeny. Alphavirus-based expression vectors have been generated for each of these proteins to explore the possibilities for their constitutive expression in cell lines. This approach was successful for minor glycoproteins GP(2b), GP(3) and GP(4) and for the E protein. Subsequently, it was demonstrated that cell lines expressing these proteins could rescue EAV mutants that were disabled in the expression of the corresponding gene, resulting in the production of virus particles carrying t...
Mumford EL, Traub-Dargatz JL, Carman J, Callan RJ, Collins JK, Goltz KL, Romm SR, Tarr SF, Salman MD.Horses vaccinated against common agents of infectious upper respiratory disease (IURD) may not have detectable serum antibody and may not be protected from clinical disease. Objective: The objectives of this study were to 1) investigate the serological response of horses to vaccination against influenza virus (H3N8 and H7N7) and equine herpesviruses (EHV) in a field setting and 2) evaluate associations among vaccination status, serum antibody concentrations, and occurrences of IURD in monitored horses. Methods: In this study, horses on 6 Colorado premises were vaccinated parenterally against i...
BMC public healthFebruary 20, 2014
Volume 14 182 doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-14-182
Sawford K, Dhand NK, Toribio JA, Taylor MR.After the 2011 cluster of Hendra virus cases in horses in Australia, public health targeted education initiatives at people in the equine industry to reduce human exposure to potentially infected horses. 'Horse owners and Hendra Virus: A Longitudinal cohort study To Evaluate Risk' aims to enhance public health measures through improved understanding of Hendra virus risk perception and risk mitigation strategies among horse owners and horse care providers. This paper describes the stakeholder consultation that was undertaken to ensure the cohort study outcomes were relevant to diverse groups wh...
Kumar K, Arshad SS, Selvarajah GT, Abu J, Toung OP, Abba Y, Yasmin AR, Bande F, Sharma R, Ong BL.Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a vector-borne zoonotic disease caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV). It causes encephalitis in human and horses, and may lead to reproductive failure in sows. The first human encephalitis case in Malaya (now Malaysia) was reported during World War II in a British prison in 1942. Later, encephalitis was observed among race horses in Singapore. In 1951, the first JEV was isolated from the brain of an encephalitis patient. The true storyline of JE exposure among humans and animals has not been documented in Malaysia. In some places such as Sarawak, JEV ha...
Daly JM, Sindle T, Tearle J, Barquero N, Newton JR, Corning S.Surveillance of equine influenza viruses has suggested that strains included in currently licensed vaccines are a poor match for those predominantly circulating in the field. Objective: To assess the ability of Duvaxyn IE-T Plus to provide cross protection against the newly evolved South Africa/4/03 (H3N8) strain of equine influenza virus. Methods: The vaccine efficacy was evaluated by challenge infection with influenza strain A/eq/South Africa/4/03 (H3N8) 2 weeks after a primary course of 2 vaccinations with Duvaxyn IE-T Plus given at a 4-week interval. The outcome of challenge in vaccinated ...
Gildea S, Sanchez Higgins MJ, Johnson G, Walsh C, Cullinane A.There is a lack of information concerning concurrent administration of vaccines against equine influenza virus (EIV) and equine herpesvirus 1 and 4 (EHV-1/4). The primary objective of this study was to determine the impact of the concurrent use of EIV and EHV-1/4 vaccines in Thoroughbred racehorses on their humoral immune response to EIV. This study was carried out on a population of 30 horses using an inactivated whole-virus EIV vaccine and an inactivated EHV-1/4 vaccine. Horses were randomly allocated to vaccination group A or B. Horses in group A were vaccinated against EIV and EHV-1/4 2 we...
