Veterinary research in horses encompasses the study of diseases, health management, and medical treatments specific to equine species. This field investigates various aspects of horse health, including infectious diseases, metabolic disorders, and musculoskeletal conditions. Researchers focus on understanding the pathophysiology of equine ailments, developing diagnostic tools, and evaluating therapeutic interventions. The study of horse health also involves examining preventive measures such as vaccination protocols and nutritional management to promote overall well-being. This page collects peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the diverse areas of veterinary science related to horses, providing insights into disease mechanisms, treatment strategies, and advancements in equine healthcare.
Uzal FA, Woodman MP, Giraudo CG, Robles CA, Doxey DL.'Mal seco' is an almost invariably fatal disease of horses in Argentina and Chile, which resembles grass sickness, a dysautonomia of horses in Europe. The aetiology of mal seco remains unknown. An attempt to reproduce the disease was made by feeding horses with Festuca argentina, a plant considered to be toxic to animals and which was consistently found in the diet of nine horses suffering from mal seco. Three horses were fed with F argentina ad libitum for 28 days. The plant was infected with an endophytic fungus, whose morphological characteristics were in agreement with descriptions of Acre...
Broström H, Troye-Bomberg M, Perlmann P.To analyze in vitro lymphocyte-mediated immune responses of horses with sarcoids against allogeneic sarcoid cells containing endogenous retrovirus but not expressing major histocompatibility complex antigens. Methods: Lymphocyte-mediated immune reactions were assessed by means of proliferative responses in mixed lymphocyte tumor cell culture (MLTC) assay and lymphocyte-mediated cytotoxicity against various equine target cells. Methods: 12 horses with sarcoid tumors and 15 control horses. Methods: Blood lymphocytes were cocultured in MLTC with allogeneic sarcoid cells (Mc-1, BayMc-1), equine te...
Harkins JD, Mundy GD, Stanley S, Woods WE, Sams RA, Richardson DR, Tobin T.Isoxsuprine is a therapeutic medication used to treat navicular disease and other lower limb problems in horses and is one of the more frequently detected therapeutic agents in racing horses. In a crossover study, horses were administered isoxsuprine i.v. to determine the character and duration of its pharmacological effects. Isoxsuprine significantly increased heart rate 5-150 min following injection. Unrestrained activity following isoxsuprine treatment was significantly greater than control activity for 105 min after treatment. There was an apparent, although statistically nonsignificant, i...
Saville WJ, Hinchcliff KW, Moore BR, Kohn CW, Reed SM, Mitten LA, Rivas LJ.The clinical and clinicopathologic characteristics of fatal necrotizing enterocolitis were examined in 16 horses (age 4 months to 12 years). At initial presentation, 8 of 16 horses were pyrexic (median temperature, 38.4 degrees C; range, 33.8 to 40.6 degrees C); all 16 were tachycardic (median heart rate, 93 bpm, range, 66 to 138 bpm); 13 of 16 were tachypneic (median heart rate, 36 bpm, range, 16 to 80 bpm), dehydrated, and had discolored mucous membranes. All horses that were pyrexic were also tachycardic and tachypneic. PCV was high (> 45%) in 14 horses. Six horses were leukopenic (< 5,000 ...
Weng X, Cloutier G, Pibarot P, Durand LG.Erythrocyte aggregation levels in pig, horse, sheep, and calf blood samples were investigated and compared to that of normal human blood. The aggregation kinetics and adhesive forces between red cells, and an index of structure of the aggregates were determined with an erythroaggregameter (Regulest, France) at constant hematocrit (0.40 l/l) and temperature (37 degrees C). The adhesive forces and the index of structure in pig blood were close to those of normal human blood. The results for horse blood showed a very high level of aggregation kinetics and adhesive forces between red cells. For sh...
Jackson C, de Lahunta A, Divers T, Ainsworth D.We evaluated creatine kinase (CK) activity in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of 128 horses with various neurological disorders. No association was found between CSF CK activity and CSF red blood cell count, CSF nucleated cell count, CSF total protein concentration, or serum CK activity. The sensitivity and specificity of CSF CK activity as a diagnostic test for protozoal myelitis in horses (61% and 56%, respectively) was higher than for cervical stenotic myelopathy, degenerative myelopathy, or motor neuron disease, but was considered to be inadequate to be of use diagnostically. Contamination o...
McClure SR, Watkins JP, Hogan HA.To compare the axial stability provided by 4 methods of attaching transfixation pins into a fiberglass cast. Methods: Axial stability of 4 methods of transfixation pin attachment to a fiberglass cast cylinder was determined in vitro. Methods of attachment included simple incorporation of the pins into the cast, placement of a washer and nut on the pin and incorporation into the cast, extension of pins beyond the cast and attachment to a steel halo, and washers within the cast and attachment to a steel halo. Methods: A model was designed to simulate a transfixation cast applied to the equine me...
Gould AR.The nucleotide sequence of the matrix protein of equine morbillivirus (EMV) was determined to be 1062 nucleotides and coded for a deduced protein of M(r) 40148 having a net charge of + 19 at neutral pH. The matrix protein gene was separated from the P and F genes by intercistronic regions of 546 and 469 nucleotides, respectively. The nucleotide sequence which coded for the F protein was 1641 nucleotides and coded for a deduced protein of 546 amino acids having an M(r) of 60,447 and a charge + 4 at neutral pH. Partial sequence information was also determined for the P/V proteins. M, P and F pro...
Owens JG, Kamerling SG, Stanton SR, Keowen ML.Detomidine (10, 20 and 40 micrograms/kg i.v.) and saline were administered to eight adult horses with hoof pain and lameness associated with chronic laminitis. Mechanical noxious stimulation was applied to 16 loci over the solar surface of each forefoot by means of an electronic hoof tester to determine chronic pain thresholds. Horses were evaluated before and at 25, 55 and 120 min after treatment for lameness and to determine hoof compression thresholds (HCTs), the percentage of responsive loci and the subjective grade of hoof withdrawal response at each responsive locus. Detomidine produced ...
Mitten LA, Hinchcliff KW, Pate JL.The effect of inhibition of cyclooxygenase activity on the hemodynamic response to exertion was examined in 6 horses. Rates of O2 consumption and CO2 production and carotid, pulmonary arterial, and right atrial pressures were measured while the horses performed a standardized exercise test on a treadmill after treatment with phenylbutazone or a placebo. Phenylbutazone (8.8 mg/kg p.o. for 2 days and 4.4 mg/kg i.v. 60 min before exertion) abolished the exertion-induced increases in plasma 6-ketoprostaglandin F1 alpha and thromboxane B2 concentrations, confirming inhibition of cyclooxygenase acti...
Maher JK, Tresnan DB, Deacon S, Hannah L, Antczak DF.Down-regulation of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) genes by trophoblast cells is considered to be a primary mechanism preventing maternal immune rejection of the fetal-placental unit in mammalian pregnancy by rendering these cells, which form the primary barrier between mother and fetus, relatively non-antigenic. In situ hybridization with probes encoding human and horse MHC class I genes was used to characterize the pattern of MHC class I mRNA expression in the various forms of horse trophoblast. Strong hybridization signals were observed in the invasive trophoblast cells of chorionic ...
Bleyaert HF, Madison JB, Bailey JE, Johnson CM.Six ponies divided into two groups of three were used in a double crossover study design. Group 1 ponies had a small intestinal resection and anastomosis performed using a biofragmentable anastomosis ring (BAR); group 2 ponies had a hand-sewn small intestinal resection and anastomosis using a Gambee suture pattern. Approximately 30 days later, all ponies had a second celiotomy and anastomosed segments were removed. Group 1 ponies had a hand-sewn anastomosis performed and group 2 had a BAR. The anastomotic sites were collected at necropsy approximately 30 days later. Anastomosed intestinal segm...
Nordengrahn A, Rusvai M, Merza M, Ekström J, Morein B, Belák S.Equine herpesvirus type 2 (EHV-2), a member of the Gammaherpesvirinae subfamily, was studied in a two-phase respiratory disease complex of young foals as a predisposing factor for the secondary bacterial invasion of lungs with Rhodococcus equi (R. equi). Foals were immunized against EHV-2 on a farm where R. equi pneumonia regularly occurred during the last years. The immunizations were performed by using a subunit vaccine which selectively presents envelope glycoproteins of EHV-2 in a multimeric form of immunostimulating complexes (iscoms). The etiological role of EHV-2 was estimated by observ...
Cauvin ER, Munroe GA, Boyd JS, Paterson C.The aim of this study was to determine the normal ultrasonographic features of the cranial and caudal aspects of the femorotibial articulation and, in particular, to establish a method of examining the menisci, cruciate and meniscal ligaments ultrasonographically. Twenty hindlimbs isolated post mortem from 10 horses were used to study the normal ultrasonographic and gross anatomy of the femorotibial joint. Five stifles from 3 normal, live horses were also examined with B-mode, real-time ultrasound imaging. The results of the anatomical study are presented. The joint surfaces, menisci, cruciate...
Daugschies A.Drug resistance of parasites is a worldwide problem of increasing importance in animal production. Considerable information is available on the development of resistance in chicken coccidia and in strongyles of horses, sheep, goats and pigs. A review is given of the development, incidence, and management of drug resistance with emphasis on the situation in Germany.
Longworth KE, Smith BL, Staub NC, Steffey EP, Serikov VB.To determine whether a detergent can prevent most of the early effects of i.v. infusion with Escherichia coli endotoxin (< 100 ng/kg of body weight) in horses: marked pulmonary hypertension, acute leukopenia, and fever. Methods: 8 healthy adult horses (4 male, 4 female), 415 to 615 kg. Methods: Control and detergent experiments were performed in each horse while it was awake but sedated. In control experiments, 10 to 100 ng of E coli endotoxin/kg was given. In detergent experiments, 100 mg of detergent/kg was given 1 hour before injecting endotoxin, similar to the control experiments. Resul...
Delbeke FT.Urinary concentrations of the beta-antagonist oxprenolol and some of its major human metabolites were determined following oral administration of a dose of 160 mg to five fasted horses. Quantitation was performed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) in the selected ion mode (SIM) by monitoring ion m/z 466 of the heptafluorobutyric derivatives. As early as 2 h after dosage oxprenolol could be detected in hydrolysed urine and remained detectable up to 24 h. Maximum urinary concentrations and excretion rates were obtained between 2 and 12 h. After 12 h only 2.8% of the administered dos...
Kirberger RM, Gottschalk RD, Guthrie AJ.Twelve horses were injected intra-articularly into the metacarpophalangeal joint and extra-articularly in the region of the lateral palmar digital nerve with 1 ml air and local anaesthetic to simulate gas accidentally introduced during regional anaesthesia. Half the horses underwent limited exercise after which all horses were radiographed at 15 and 45 min and then every 24 h until all evidence of gas had disappeared. Intra-articular gas appeared as gas capped radiolucencies (GCR) in the proximal aspect of the joint. Extra-articular gas appeared as linear radiolucencies (LR) which initially te...
Galey FD, Holstege DM, Plumlee KH, Tor E, Johnson B, Anderson ML, Blanchard PC, Brown F.Since mid-1989, 37 cases of oleander poisoning in livestock have been diagnosed at the California Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory System. The most frequent source for oleander exposure was plant clippings. Sudden death was the most common presenting complaint. Other signs reported included diarrhea, pulmonary edema, tachycardia, cardiac arrhythmias, colic, and lethargy. In the past, a presumptive diagnosis of oleander poisoning could be based only on matching clinical signs with evidence of consumption of oleander. A new 2 dimensional Thin-layer chromatography analysis of ingesta for oleandri...
Edens LM, Crisman MV, Toth TE, Ahmed SA, Murray MJ.The objectives of this study were to: (1) develop a technique to analyze the in vitro cytotoxic activity of lymphocytes from adult horses against equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) infected allogenic equine dermal fibroblasts (EDF); (2) evaluate the ability of a 72-h in vitro incubation with interleukin-2 (IL-2) to enhance the lymphocytic cytolytic activity against EHV-1 infected EDF; (3) compare the cytotoxic activity of lymphocytes isolated from pregnant mares and non-pregnant mares against EHV-1 infected EDF; (4) ascertain if any correlations existed between the percent cytotoxicity and percentag...
Benbarek H, Deby-Dupont G, Deby C, Caudron I, Mathy-Hartert M, Lamy M, Serteyn D.The activation of human polymorphonuclear leucocytes (the respiratory burst) can be studied by measuring their chemiluminescent response. This technique was adapted to equine leucocytes to investigate the effects of cell number, activator concentration, enhancers of chemiluminescence, pH, temperature and inhibitors. Leucocytes were isolated from citrated blood from healthy horses and chemiluminescence was measured with a Bio-Orbit luminometer sensitive to 900 nm light. The optimal cell density for the maximal chemiluminescent response ranged from 10(6) to 10(7) leucocytes 600 microliters-1. Ch...
Ayala I, Montes A, Bernal LJ, Sandoval JA, Gutierrez C.The duration of electrocardiograph wave forms and intervals were determined in 179 Spanish-bred (Andalusian) horses aged from 1 month to 17 years. The values were compared with those of other breeds, and the relationship between electrocardiographic data and age was examined. High correlation coefficients were found between PR, ST and QT intervals and the age of the horses, and an inverted relation between heart rate and age was found. A multiple range analysis was made and the results suggest that significant changes in duration values and heart rate occurred at the age of 6 months and in the...
van Aarde MN, Littlejohn A, Van der Walt JJ.A method was developed for determining the ratio of cardiopulmonary blood volume to stroke volume, in horses. The radioisotope 99 Tc (technetium 99m pertechnetate) was injected into the jugular vein as a bolus, which was then detected in the right and left ventricles consecutively by a scanning device consisting of a Na I crystal, a collimator, an amplifier and a discriminator. The radiocardiogram (RCG) and the ECG were recorded simultaneously by a two-channel writing device. The ratio of cardiopulmonary blood volume to stroke volume (cardiopulmonary flow index = CPFI) was then determined from...
Anderson JD, Leonard JM, Zeliff JA, Garman RH.A 16-year-old Thoroughbred gelding was evaluated for respiratory disease and found to have a primary lung tumor on postmortem examination. A tentative antemortem diagnosis was made on the basis of results of radiography and cytologic examination of a needle aspirate guided by ultrasonography. A histologic diagnosis of bronchioalveolar adenocarcinoma was made. Thoracic neoplasia is rare in horses. The most frequently reported primary pulmonary tumor is the granular cell tumor.
Van Diest TJ, Kogan CJ, Kopper JJ.Hospitalized horses are at risk for colic due to several factors, all of which may reduce voluntary water intake (VWI) further contributing to the development of colic during hospitalization. Our objectives were to determine if using flavored water (sweet feed, peppermint, or apple-flavored electrolyte) increases VWI of hospitalized horses and to determine if horses consumed more flavored water versus plain water. We hypothesized that (1) in hospitalized horses the availability of flavored water results in more VWI than the availability of unflavored water and that (2) average intake of flavor...
Arnold C, Chaffin MK, Cohen N, Fajt VR, Taylor RJ, Bernstein LR.To determine the pharmacokinetics of gallium maltolate (GaM) after intragastric administration in adult horses. Methods: 6 adult horses. Methods: Feed was withheld for 12 hours prior to intragastric administration of GaM (20 mg/kg). A single dose of GaM was administered to each horse via a nasogastric tube (time 0). Blood samples were collected at various time points from 0 to 120 hours. Serum was used to determine gallium concentrations by use of inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy. Noncompartmental and compartmental analyses of serum gallium concentrations were performed. Pharmacoki...
Bookbinder L, Schott HC.To describe refeeding syndrome in an equid without a history of recognized risk factors. Methods: Refeeding syndrome with marked hypophosphatemia developed in an aged miniature donkey gelding during treatment of suspected enterocolitis. Hypophosphatemia (manifested clinically as ileus and neuromuscular weakness) developed despite a short (3 day) history of hyporexia, increased body condition (7/9), and adherence to nutritional recommendations for critically ill equids. Nutritional support included nasogastric enteral feeding with a commercial equine nutrition product claiming to provide 100% o...
Sonea IM, Bowker RM, Robinson NE, Broadstone RV.Distribution of pulmonary nerves immunoreactive for either substance P or calcitonin gene-related peptide was determined, using immunohistochemical methods on healthy lungs from adult equids. The overall patterns of distribution of substance P and calcitonin gene-related peptide-like immunoreactivity were similar. Distribution of immunoreactive nerves was not uniform throughout the lungs; nerve fibers immunoreactive for these peptides were more frequently observed near the hilus of the lung than in the caudal lobes or in the periphery of the lung. Nerve fibers immunoreactive for substance P or...
Tunón AM, Rodríguez-Martínez H, Nummijärvi A, Magnusson U.To evaluate effect of age and parity on distribution and number of cells expressing major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II, CD4, or CD8 molecules in the endometrium of mares during estrus. Methods: 32 gynecologically healthy mares, categorized as young (3 to 8 years; n = 17) or old (9 to 16 years; 15) and nulliparous (n = 6), nulliparous embryo donors (16), or parous (10). Methods: Endometrial specimens collected from the uterine body and horns during estrus were stained by use of the avidin-biotin-peroxidase method, using monoclonal antibodies against equine MHC class II, CD4, and CD...
Wong DM, Buechner-Maxwell VA, Manning TO, Ward DL.To evaluate the precision of intradermal testing (IDT) in horses. Methods: 12 healthy adult horses. Methods: IDT was performed on the neck of each horse by use of 2 positive control substances (histamine and phytohemagglutinin [PHA]) and a negative control substance. An equal volume (0.1 mL) for each injection was prepared to yield a total of 20 syringes ([4 concentrations of each positive control substance plus 1 negative control substance] times 2 positive control substances times 2 duplicative tests) for each side of the neck. Both sides of the neck were used for IDT; therefore, 40 syringes...
Rutberg AT, Turner JW, Herman K.To be effective and publicly acceptable, management of free-roaming horses and burros in the United States and elsewhere needs a consistent ethical framing of the animals and the land they occupy. In the U.S., the two laws that largely govern wild horse and burro management, the 1971 Wild Free-Roaming Horse and Burro Act and the 1976 Federal Land Policy and Management Act ("FLPMA"), rest on conflicting foundations, the former based on an ethic of care and the latter on largely utilitarian principles. These conflicts specifically fuel debates over the selection of appropriate fertility control ...
Valenzuela OA, Jellyman JK, Allen VL, Niu Y, Holdstock NB, Forhead AJ, Giussani DA, Fowden AL, Herrera EA.Prenatal glucocorticoid overexposure has been shown to programme adult cardiovascular function in a range of species, but much less is known about the long-term effects of neonatal glucocorticoid overexposure. In horses, prenatal maturation of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis and the normal prepartum surge in fetal cortisol occur late in gestation compared to other precocious species. Cortisol levels continue to rise in the hours after birth of full-term foals and increase further in the subsequent days in premature, dysmature and maladapted foals. Thus, this study examined the adult ca...
Sakamoto T, Fawcett JA, Innan H.Horses have substantial variation in coat color, and the genetic loci responsible for the coat color variations have been well investigated. It has been believed that some color variations should follow a single-locus Mendelian law. Examples include the Gray locus that causes the gray phenotype and the Extension locus that specifies the chestnut phenotype. We reevaluated the roles of the Gray and Extension loci by using a large number of mating records of Thoroughbred racing horses. We showed that the data indeed fits the Mendelian law extremely well for the two loci. Furthermore, we demonstra...
Wang ZW, Yu MF, Robinson NE.Muscarinic autoreceptors on horse airway cholinergic nerves were studied by examining the effects of muscarinic receptor antagonists on electrical field stimulation (EFS)-induced acetylcholine (ACh) release in trachealis preparations. All the antagonists including atropine (non-selective), pirenzepine (M1-selective), AF-DX 116 (M2-selective), and hexahydrosiladifenidol (M3-selective) augmented ACh release concentration-dependently. The augmentation was not due to displacement of ACh molecules from tissue receptors into the bath liquid because incubation with atropine after EFS had no influence...
Zibura AE, Cullen MA, Rutledge H, Lassalle L, Salmon JH, Gilger BC, Westermeyer HD.Determine optimal iontophoresis times for riboflavin delivery to the corneal stroma across different species and compare these to corneal injection. Methods: Ex vivo horse, dog, rabbit, and pig globes were treated with riboflavin administered with either iontophoresis for 2.5-20 minutes with or without corneal epithelium; or with purpose-designed precise corneal injection (PCI) application with intact epithelium. Immediately following riboflavin administration, samples were harvested, frozen, and sectioned. Riboflavin penetration was imaged using fluorescence microscopy. Results: Horse sample...
Goudet G, Bézard J, Belin F, Duchamp G, Palmer E, Gérard N.The in vitro maturation rate of equine oocytes remains low, regardless of culture conditions. Our objective was to determine the reasons for failure of equine oocytes to resume meiosis during in vitro maturation and to ascertain the influence of the estrous cycle stage on meiotic competence. In 10 cyclic mares, 7 ultrasound-guided follicular punctures were performed alternately during the follicular phase (group DF; n = 3 punctures), at the end of the follicular phase (group EF; n = 2), and during the luteal phase (group DL; n = 2). We evaluated the competence of the oocytes for in vitro matur...
Milillo P, Traversa D, Elia G, Otranto D.Larvae of Rhinoestrus spp. (Diptera, Oestridae) infect nasal and sinus cavities of horses, causing a nasal myiasis characterized by severe respiratory distress. Presently, the diagnosis of horse nasal botfly relies on the observation of clinical signs, on the post mortem retrieval of larvae or on molecular assays performed using pharyngeal swabs. The present study was carried out to characterize larval somatic proteins and salivary glands of Rhinoestrus spp. in a preliminary assessment towards the immunodiagnosis of equine rhinoestrosis. Out of the 212 necropsied horses 13 were positive for th...
Petrova V, Yonkova P, Simeonova G, Vachkova E.Subcutaneous fat tissue is an accessible and abundant source of multipotent stem cells for cell therapy in regenerative medicine. Successful trilineage differentiation is required to define the stemness features of the obtained mesenchymal cells, and adipogenesis is a part of it. Since indomethacin is bound to serum albumin, replacing foetal bovine serum (FBS) with horse serum (HS) in adipogenic induction protocols would suppress its cytotoxic effect and reveal a better adipogenic potential in equine MSCs. The equine subcutaneous adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) were separately induced in adi...
Rose NS, Northrop AJ, Brigden CV, Martin JH.The aim of this study was to quantify the effects of two different 8-week stretching regimes on stride length (SL) and range of motion (ROM) in the equine trot. Eighteen horses were divided into three matched groups: a 6 days/week stretching regime (6DSR), a 3 days/week stretching regime (3DSR) and a control no-stretching regime (NSR). SL and ROM data were collected at weeks 0, 2, 4, 6 and 8 for trot in-hand. Stretching had no significant effect on SL. A number of significant differences were found in joint ROM between treatments in the shoulder, stifle and hock, suggesting some negative biome...
Norman T, Chaffin K, Schmitz D.The equine small intestine is challenging to evaluate ultrasonographically. In humans, hydrosonography has been used to improve ultrasonographic images of the small intestine. We hypothesized that fasting horses for 24 h would enhance the ability to image the small intestine transabdominally by separating intestinal loops and reducing intraluminal gas, and that the administration of intragastric contrast agent would further improve that ability. Ten healthy horses were examined ultrasonographically under three treatment conditions: (a) regular diet, (b) after a 24-h fast, and (c) fasted plus i...
da Silva Inácio DF, de Rezende ASC, Melo MM, Quintão Lana ÂM, Prado Silva RH, de Jesus Mendes L, de Paula Gonçalves Reis L, Maruch S, Ralston SL.Young horses reach nearly 90% of their final height in the first year of life. However, to achieve their genetic potential, it is necessary to receive adequate nutrition during this period of rapid growth. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of supplementation of sorghum silage during a period of limited pasture forage availability, on the body development, and health of Mangalarga Marchador (MM) weanling fillies. Fourteen healthy MM 6-month-old fillies were randomly assigned to one of two groups: GS (consuming silage) and GH (consuming grass hay (Cynodon spp) in addition to...
Stevenson AJ, Weber MP, Todi F, Young L, Beaumier P, Kacew S.Plasma and urinary concentrations of procaine were examined in Standardbred mares after subcutaneous administration of various doses (80 mg to 1600 mg) of procaine hydrochloride. Regardless of dose, peak plasma procaine values occurred within 1 h, but remained detectable in a dose-dependent manner, with procaine present at 1 h with the 80 mg dose and 6 h at the 1600 mg dose. Similarly, peak urinary procaine concentrations were attained within 1.5 to 3 h, irrespective of dose, while detection time was dose-dependent, being 23 h for 80-200 mg doses but as long as 30-54 h with the 1600 mg dose. W...
