FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Vaccines2020; 8(1); 107; doi: 10.3390/vaccines8010107

Evaluation of Current Equine Influenza Vaccination Protocols Prior to Shipment, Guided by OIE Standards.

Abstract: To facilitate the temporary importation of horses for competition and racing purposes, with a minimum risk of transmitting equine influenza, the World Organisation for Animal Health (Office International des Epizooties, or OIE), formally engaged in a public-private partnership with the Federation Equestre Internationale (FEI) and the International Federation for Horseracing Authorities (IFHA) to establish, within the context of existing OIE standards, a science-based rationale to identify the ideal time period for equine influenza vaccination prior to shipment. Field trials using vaccines based on different technologies were carried out on three continents. The antibody response post-booster vaccination at intervals aligned with the different rules/recommendations of the OIE, FEI, and IFHA, was monitored by single radial haemolysis. It was determined that 14 days was the optimum period necessary to allow horses adequate time to respond to booster vaccination and for horses that have previously received four or more doses of vaccine and are older than four years, it is adequate to allow vaccination within 180 days of shipment. In contrast, the results indicate that there is a potential benefit to younger (four years old or younger) horses in requiring booster vaccination within 90 days of shipment, consistent with the current OIE standard.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2020-02-29 PubMed ID: 32121419PubMed Central: PMC7157717DOI: 10.3390/vaccines8010107Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

The researchers conducted trials to find the most effective time period for vaccinating horses against equine influenza prior to their shipment for racing or competition purposes. They determined that a 14-day period was ideal post-booster vaccination and for horses that were older than four and had received more than four doses, vaccination within 180 days of shipment was adequate. However, for younger horses (four years old or under), a booster vaccination within 90 days of shipment was potentially beneficial.

Background

  • In order to ensure the safe temporary import of horses for competitions and races, a minimum risk of transmitting equine influenza needs to be assured. For this reason, the World Organisation for Animal Health (Office International des Epizooties, or OIE) partnered with the Federation Equestre Internationale (FEI) and the International Federation for Horseracing Authorities (IFHA) to determine the ideal time period for equine influenza vaccination prior to shipment.

Methodology

  • The partnership carried out field trials using different types of vaccines across three continents.
  • The trials focused on monitoring the antibody response after a booster vaccination at intervals that align with the OIE, FEI, and IFHA’s rules and recommendations.
  • The researchers used single radial haemolysis, a method that measures the ability of antibodies in a serum sample to react with antigen and form a circle of haemolysis (or bursting of red blood cells), to detect the antibody response.

Findings

  • The ideal time period post-booster vaccination was found to be 14 days. This gives the horse adequate time to produce a response to the booster vaccination.
  • For horses older than four years, which had previously received more than four vaccine doses, it was determined that vaccination within 180 days (roughly six months) prior to shipment was sufficient.
  • Contrariwise, results suggested a potential benefit for younger horses (aged four years or younger) in receiving a booster vaccination within 90 days of shipment. This finding was in line with the current OIE standard.

Significance

  • The findings of this research could inform and improve current vaccination protocols for equine influenza in the context of international horse importation for competition purposes.
  • This knowledge could help reduce the transmission risk of equine influenza during such events, thereby protecting the health of equine populations.

Cite This Article

APA
Cullinane A, Gahan J, Walsh C, Nemoto M, Entenfellner J, Olguin-Perglione C, Garvey M, Huang Fu TQ, Venner M, Yamanaka T, Barrandeguy M, Fernandez CJ. (2020). Evaluation of Current Equine Influenza Vaccination Protocols Prior to Shipment, Guided by OIE Standards. Vaccines (Basel), 8(1), 107. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines8010107

Publication

Vaccines
ISSN: 2076-393X
NlmUniqueID: 101629355
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 8
Issue: 1
PII: 107

Researcher Affiliations

Cullinane, Ann
  • Virology Unit, The Irish Equine Centre, Naas, Co. Kildare, W91 RH93 Johnstown, Ireland.
Gahan, Jacinta
  • Virology Unit, The Irish Equine Centre, Naas, Co. Kildare, W91 RH93 Johnstown, Ireland.
Walsh, Cathal
  • Department of Mathematics and Statistics, University of Limerick, V94 T9PX Limerick, Ireland.
Nemoto, Manabu
  • Virology Unit, The Irish Equine Centre, Naas, Co. Kildare, W91 RH93 Johnstown, Ireland.
  • Equine Research Institute, the Japan Racing Association, 1400-4 Shiba, Shimotsuke, Tochigi 329-0412, Japan.
Entenfellner, Johanna
  • Equine Clinic, School of Veterinary Medicine, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173 Hannover, Germany.
Olguin-Perglione, Cecilia
  • Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Instituto de Virología, De Los Reseros y Dr. Nicolás Repetto S/N, Hurlingham, Buenos Aires B1686IGC, Argentina.
Garvey, Marie
  • Virology Unit, The Irish Equine Centre, Naas, Co. Kildare, W91 RH93 Johnstown, Ireland.
Huang Fu, Tao Qi
  • Centre for Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Professional and Scientific Services, Animal and Veterinary Service, National Parks Board, 1 Cluny Road, Singapore 259569, Singapore.
Venner, Monica
  • Pferdeklinik Destedt GmbH, Destedt, Trift 4, 38162 Cremlingen, Germany.
Yamanaka, Takashi
  • Equine Research Institute, the Japan Racing Association, 1400-4 Shiba, Shimotsuke, Tochigi 329-0412, Japan.
Barrandeguy, María
  • Escuela de Veterinaria, Universidad del Salvador, Champagnat 1599, Ruta Panamericana km 54.5 Pilar, Buenos Aires B1630AHU, Argentina.
Fernandez, Charlene Judith
  • Centre for Animal and Veterinary Sciences, Professional and Scientific Services, Animal and Veterinary Service, National Parks Board, 1 Cluny Road, Singapore 259569, Singapore.

Grant Funding

  • AD/SR/2015/1885 2.3 / World Organisation for Animal Health (Office International des Epizooties or OIE), in a public-private partnership with the Federation Equestre Internationale (FEI) and the International Federation for Horseracing Authority (IFHA).

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript, or in the decision to publish the results.

References

This article includes 48 references
  1. Cullinane A, Newton JR. Equine influenza--a global perspective.. Vet Microbiol 2013 Nov 29;167(1-2):205-14.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.03.029pubmed: 23680107google scholar: lookup
  2. Cowled B, Ward MP, Hamilton S, Garner G. The equine influenza epidemic in Australia: spatial and temporal descriptive analyses of a large propagating epidemic.. Prev Vet Med 2009 Nov 1;92(1-2):60-70.
    doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2009.08.006pubmed: 19748691google scholar: lookup
  3. Firestone SM, Schemann KA, Toribio JA, Ward MP, Dhand NK. A case-control study of risk factors for equine influenza spread onto horse premises during the 2007 epidemic in Australia.. Prev Vet Med 2011 Jun 1;100(1):53-63.
    doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2011.03.002pubmed: 21481961google scholar: lookup
  4. Smyth GB, Dagley K, Tainsh J. Insights into the economic consequences of the 2007 equine influenza outbreak in Australia.. Aust Vet J 2011 Jul;89 Suppl 1:151-8.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2011.00777.xpubmed: 21711317google scholar: lookup
  5. Powell DG, Watkins KL, Li PH, Shortridge KF. Outbreak of equine influenza among horses in Hong Kong during 1992.. Vet Rec 1995 May 27;136(21):531-6.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.136.21.531pubmed: 7660556google scholar: lookup
  6. Yamanaka T, Niwa H, Tsujimura K, Kondo T, Matsumura T. Epidemic of equine influenza among vaccinated racehorses in Japan in 2007.. J Vet Med Sci 2008 Jun;70(6):623-5.
    doi: 10.1292/jvms.70.623pubmed: 18628606google scholar: lookup
  7. Guthrie AJ, Stevens KB, Bosman PP. The circumstances surrounding the outbreak and spread of equine influenza in South Africa.. Rev Sci Tech 1999 Apr;18(1):179-85.
    doi: 10.20506/rst.18.1.1155pubmed: 10190213google scholar: lookup
  8. King E, Macdonald D. Report of the Board of Inquiry appointed by the Board of the National Horseracing Authority to conduct enquiry into the causes of the equine influenza which started in the Western cape in early December 2003 and spread to the Eastern Cape and Gauteng.. Aust. Equine Vet. 2004;23:139–142.
  9. Gahan J, Garvey M, Gildea S, Gür E, Kagankaya A, Cullinane A. Whole-genome sequencing and antigenic analysis of the first equine influenza virus identified in Turkey.. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2018 May;12(3):374-382.
    doi: 10.1111/irv.12485pmc: PMC5907808pubmed: 28940727google scholar: lookup
  10. Gahan J, Garvey M, Asmah Abd Samad R, Cullinane A. Whole Genome Sequencing of the First H3N8 Equine Influenza Virus Identified in Malaysia.. Pathogens 2019 May 10;8(2).
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens8020062pmc: PMC6630255pubmed: 31083430google scholar: lookup
  11. Olguin-Perglione C, Vissani MA, Alamos F, Tordoya MS, Barrandeguy M. Multifocal outbreak of equine influenza in vaccinated horses in Argentina in 2018: Epidemiological aspects and molecular characterisation of the involved virus strains.. Equine Vet J 2020 May;52(3):420-427.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.13176pubmed: 31494962google scholar: lookup
  12. World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) OIE Expert Surveillance Panel on Equine Influenza Vaccine Composition, OIE Headquarters, 4 April 2019. [(accessed on 16 December 2019)]; Available online: https://oiebulletin.com/?officiel=08-4-1-2019-2-panel-en.
  13. Fougerolle S, Fortier C, Legrand L, Jourdan M, Marcillaud-Pitel C, Pronost S, Paillot R. Success and Limitation of Equine Influenza Vaccination: The First Incursion in a Decade of a Florida Clade 1 Equine Influenza Virus that Shakes Protection Despite High Vaccine Coverage.. Vaccines (Basel) 2019 Nov 2;7(4).
    doi: 10.3390/vaccines7040174pmc: PMC6963532pubmed: 31684097google scholar: lookup
  14. Dominguez M, Münstermann S, de Guindos I, Timoney P. Equine disease events resulting from international horse movements: Systematic review and lessons learned.. Equine Vet J 2016 Sep;48(5):641-53.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12523pubmed: 26509734google scholar: lookup
  15. Perglione CO, Gildea S, Rimondi A, Miño S, Vissani A, Carossino M, Cullinane A, Barrandeguy M. Epidemiological and virological findings during multiple outbreaks of equine influenza in South America in 2012.. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2016 Jan;10(1):37-46.
    doi: 10.1111/irv.12349pmc: PMC4687505pubmed: 26406274google scholar: lookup
  16. Watson J, Daniels P, Kirkland P, Carroll A, Jeggo M. The 2007 outbreak of equine influenza in Australia: lessons learned for international trade in horses.. Rev Sci Tech 2011 Apr;30(1):87-93.
    doi: 10.20506/rst.30.1.2021pubmed: 21809755google scholar: lookup
  17. Woodward AL, Rash AS, Blinman D, Bowman S, Chambers TM, Daly JM, Damiani A, Joseph S, Lewis N, McCauley JW, Medcalf L, Mumford J, Newton JR, Tiwari A, Bryant NA, Elton DM. Development of a surveillance scheme for equine influenza in the UK and characterisation of viruses isolated in Europe, Dubai and the USA from 2010-2012.. Vet Microbiol 2014 Mar 14;169(3-4):113-27.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.11.039pubmed: 24480583google scholar: lookup
  18. World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) OIE Terrestrial Animal Health Code, 2019. Paris, France. [(accessed on 16 December 2019)]; Available online: https://www.oie.int/fileadmin/Home/eng/Health_standards/tahc/current/chapitre_eiv.pdf.
  19. Daly JM, Sindle T, Tearle J, Barquero N, Newton JR, Corning S. Equine influenza vaccine containing older H3N8 strains offers protection against A/eq/South Africa/4/03 (H3N8) strain in a short-term vaccine efficacy study.. Equine Vet J 2007 Sep;39(5):446-50.
    doi: 10.2746/042516407X180327pubmed: 17910270google scholar: lookup
  20. Bryant NA, Paillot R, Rash AS, Medcalf E, Montesso F, Ross J, Watson J, Jeggo M, Lewis NS, Newton JR, Elton DM. Comparison of two modern vaccines and previous influenza infection against challenge with an equine influenza virus from the Australian 2007 outbreak.. Vet Res 2010 Mar-Apr;41(2):19.
    doi: 10.1051/vetres/2009067pmc: PMC2790087pubmed: 19863903google scholar: lookup
  21. Paillot R. A Systematic Review of Recent Advances in Equine Influenza Vaccination.. Vaccines (Basel) 2014 Nov 14;2(4):797-831.
    doi: 10.3390/vaccines2040797pmc: PMC4494246pubmed: 26344892google scholar: lookup
  22. Gildea S, Arkins S, Cullinane A. A comparative antibody study of the potential susceptibility of Thoroughbred and non-Thoroughbred horse populations in Ireland to equine influenza virus.. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2010 Nov;4(6):363-72.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1750-2659.2010.00163.xpmc: PMC4634612pubmed: 20958930google scholar: lookup
  23. Newton JR, Townsend HG, Wood JL, Sinclair R, Hannant D, Mumford JA. Immunity to equine influenza: relationship of vaccine-induced antibody in young Thoroughbred racehorses to protection against field infection with influenza A/equine-2 viruses (H3N8).. Equine Vet J 2000 Jan;32(1):65-74.
    doi: 10.2746/042516400777612116pubmed: 10661388google scholar: lookup
  24. R Core Team. R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing; Vienna, Austria: 2016.
  25. Mumford J, Wood J. WHO/OIE meeting: consultation on newly emerging strains of equine influenza. 18-19 May 1992, Animal Health Trust, Newmarket, Suffolk, UK.. Vaccine 1993;11(11):1172-5.
    doi: 10.1016/0264-410X(93)90092-Cpubmed: 8249440google scholar: lookup
  26. Luna LK, Panning M, Grywna K, Pfefferle S, Drosten C. Spectrum of viruses and atypical bacteria in intercontinental air travelers with symptoms of acute respiratory infection.. J Infect Dis 2007 Mar 1;195(5):675-9.
    doi: 10.1086/511432pmc: PMC7199876pubmed: 17262708google scholar: lookup
  27. Leadon D, Waran N, Herholz C, Klay M. Veterinary management of horse transport.. Vet Ital 2008 Jan-Mar;44(1):149-63.
    pubmed: 20405422
  28. Cullinane A. Equine influenza and air transport. Equine Vet. Educ. 2014;26:456–457.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12215google scholar: lookup
  29. World Health Organisation (WHO) World Health Organisation: Ten Threats to Global Health in 2019. [(accessed on 16 December 2019)]; Available online: https://www.who.int/emergencies/ten-threats-to-global-health-in-2019.
  30. Andersen SA, Petersen HH, Ersbøll AK, Falk-Rønne J, Jacobsen S. Vaccination elicits a prominent acute phase response in horses.. Vet J 2012 Feb;191(2):199-202.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2011.01.019pubmed: 21371917google scholar: lookup
  31. Gershwin LJ, Netherwood KA, Norris MS, Behrens NE, Shao MX. Equine IgE responses to non-viral vaccine components.. Vaccine 2012 Dec 14;30(52):7615-20.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2012.10.029pubmed: 23088888google scholar: lookup
  32. Paillot R, Kydd JH, Sindle T, Hannant D, Edlund Toulemonde C, Audonnet JC, Minke JM, Daly JM. Antibody and IFN-gamma responses induced by a recombinant canarypox vaccine and challenge infection with equine influenza virus.. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2006 Aug 15;112(3-4):225-33.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2006.02.007pubmed: 16621023google scholar: lookup
  33. Paillot R, Grimmett H, Elton D, Daly JM. Protection, systemic IFNgamma, and antibody responses induced by an ISCOM-based vaccine against a recent equine influenza virus in its natural host.. Vet Res 2008 May-Jun;39(3):21.
    doi: 10.1051/vetres:2007062pubmed: 18252187google scholar: lookup
  34. Paillot R, Prowse L, Montesso F, Huang CM, Barnes H, Escala J. Whole inactivated equine influenza vaccine: Efficacy against a representative clade 2 equine influenza virus, IFNgamma synthesis and duration of humoral immunity.. Vet Microbiol 2013 Mar 23;162(2-4):396-407.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2012.10.019pubmed: 23146168google scholar: lookup
  35. Gildea S, Quinlivan M, Murphy BA, Cullinane A. Humoral response and antiviral cytokine expression following vaccination of thoroughbred weanlings--a blinded comparison of commercially available vaccines.. Vaccine 2013 Oct 25;31(45):5216-22.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.08.083pubmed: 24021309google scholar: lookup
  36. Mumford J.A. Collaborative study for the establishment of three European Pharmacopoeia Biological Reference Preparations for equine influenza horse antiserum. Pharmeuropa 2000;1:7–21.
  37. Daly J, Daas A, Behr-Gross ME. Collaborative study for the establishment of a candidate equine influenza subtype 2 American-like strain A/EQ/South Africa/4/03 - horse antiserum biological reference preparation.. Pharmeuropa Bio 2007 Dec;2007(1):7-14.
    pubmed: 18413133
  38. Mumford JA, Wood J. Establishing an acceptability threshold for equine influenza vaccines.. Dev Biol Stand 1992;79:137-46.
    pubmed: 1286748
  39. Mumford JA, Jessett D, Dunleavy U, Wood J, Hannant D, Sundquist B, Cook RF. Antigenicity and immunogenicity of experimental equine influenza ISCOM vaccines.. Vaccine 1994 Jul;12(9):857-63.
    doi: 10.1016/0264-410X(94)90297-6pubmed: 7975864google scholar: lookup
  40. Mumford JA, Wilson H, Hannant D, Jessett DM. Antigenicity and immunogenicity of equine influenza vaccines containing a Carbomer adjuvant.. Epidemiol Infect 1994 Apr;112(2):421-37.
    doi: 10.1017/S0950268800057848pmc: PMC2271453pubmed: 8150017google scholar: lookup
  41. Newton JR, Verheyen K, Wood JL, Yates PJ, Mumford JA. Equine influenza in the United Kingdom in 1998.. Vet Rec 1999 Oct 16;145(16):449-52.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.145.16.449pubmed: 10576277google scholar: lookup
  42. Haaheim LR, Schild GC. Antibodies to the strain-specific and cross-reactive determinants of the haemagglutinin of influenza H3N2 viruses. Antiviral activities of the antibodies in biological systems.. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand B 1980 Dec;88(6):335-40.
    pubmed: 6164247doi: 10.1111/j.1699-0463.1980.tb02652.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  43. Yates P, Mumford JA. Equine influenza vaccine efficacy: the significance of antigenic variation.. Vet Microbiol 2000 May 22;74(1-2):173-7.
    doi: 10.1016/S0378-1135(00)00177-2pubmed: 10799789google scholar: lookup
  44. Livesay GJ, O'Neill T, Hannant D, Yadav MP, Mumford JA. The outbreak of equine influenza (H3N8) in the United Kingdom in 1989: diagnostic use of an antigen capture ELISA.. Vet Rec 1993 Nov 20;133(21):515-9.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.133.21.515pubmed: 8310627google scholar: lookup
  45. Gildea S, Arkins S, Walsh C, Cullinane A. A comparison of antibody responses to commercial equine influenza vaccines following annual booster vaccination of National Hunt horses - a randomised blind study.. Vaccine 2011 May 17;29(22):3917-22.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.03.003pubmed: 21419776google scholar: lookup
  46. Paillot R, El-Hage CM. The Use of a Recombinant Canarypox-Based Equine Influenza Vaccine during the 2007 Australian Outbreak: A Systematic Review and Summary.. Pathogens 2016 Jun 10;5(2).
    doi: 10.3390/pathogens5020042pmc: PMC4931393pubmed: 27294963google scholar: lookup
  47. Galvin P, Gildea S, Arkins S, Walsh C, Cullinane A. The evaluation of a nucleoprotein ELISA for the detection of equine influenza antibodies and the differentiation of infected from vaccinated horses (DIVA).. Influenza Other Respir Viruses 2013 Dec;7 Suppl 4(Suppl 4):73-80.
    doi: 10.1111/irv.12195pmc: PMC5655885pubmed: 24224822google scholar: lookup
  48. Gildea S, Arkins S, Walsh C, Cullinane A. A comparison of antibody responses to commercial equine influenza vaccines following primary vaccination of Thoroughbred weanlings--a randomised blind study.. Vaccine 2011 Nov 15;29(49):9214-23.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.09.101pubmed: 21983355google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 6 times.
  1. Oladunni FS, Oseni SO, Martinez-Sobrido L, Chambers TM. Equine Influenza Virus and Vaccines. Viruses 2021 Aug 20;13(8).
    doi: 10.3390/v13081657pubmed: 34452521google scholar: lookup
  2. Olguin-Perglione C, Barrandeguy ME. An Overview of Equine Influenza in South America. Viruses 2021 May 12;13(5).
    doi: 10.3390/v13050888pubmed: 34065839google scholar: lookup
  3. Karam B, Wilson WD, Chambers TM, Reedy S, Pusterla N. Hemagglutinin inhibition antibody responses to commercial equine influenza vaccines in vaccinated horses. Can Vet J 2021 Mar;62(3):266-272.
    pubmed: 33692582
  4. Entenfellner J, Gahan J, Garvey M, Walsh C, Venner M, Cullinane A. Response of Sport Horses to Different Formulations of Equine Influenza Vaccine. Vaccines (Basel) 2020 Jul 10;8(3).
    doi: 10.3390/vaccines8030372pubmed: 32664411google scholar: lookup
  5. Ricci I, Tofani S, Lelli D, Vincifori G, Rosone F, Carvelli A, Diaconu EL, La Rocca D, Manna G, Sabatini S, Costantini D, Conti R, Pacchiarotti G, Scicluna MT. First Reported Circulation of Equine Influenza H3N8 Florida Clade 1 Virus in Horses in Italy. Animals (Basel) 2024 Feb 12;14(4).
    doi: 10.3390/ani14040598pubmed: 38396566google scholar: lookup
  6. Trovão NS, Khan SM, Lemey P, Nelson MI, Cherry JL. Comparative evolution of influenza A virus H1 and H3 head and stalk domains across host species. mBio 2024 Jan 16;15(1):e0264923.
    doi: 10.1128/mbio.02649-23pubmed: 38078770google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,850 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.