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Topic:Anatomy
Anatomy in horses encompasses the study of the structural organization of the equine body, including the bones, muscles, organs, and systems that function together to sustain life and enable movement. Understanding equine anatomy is important for veterinarians, equine scientists, and horse owners, as it provides insights into how horses move, how they respond to external stimuli, and how various conditions can affect their health and performance. Key anatomical features in horses include the musculoskeletal system, which provides support and locomotion; the cardiovascular system, which circulates blood and nutrients; and the respiratory system, which facilitates gas exchange. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the detailed anatomy of horses, focusing on the structure and function of different body systems, their interrelationships, and their relevance to equine health, performance, and veterinary care.
[How to manage a rectal lesion in horses in clinical practice]. The most feared complication after a rectal examination of horses and ponies is to cause a tear of all the layers in the intraperitoneal part of the rectum. The description of the anatomy is an attempt to explain that the rectal tear is mostly located in the dorsal or dorsolateral part of the rectum. This article describes a relatively simple suture technique for the rectal tear by using the needle of Deschamp which is modified by Professor B. Huskamp. Furthermore there is a description of this method as treatment of two horses in practice circumstances. The issue whether causing a rectal tear...
Artifactual nonlinearity due to wear grooves and friction in four-point bending experiments of cortical bone. Experiments and analyses were performed to determine the cause of a nonlinear force-deflection response observed in four-point flexural fatigue of beams of cortical bone machined from the mid-diaphysis of the equine third metacarpus. Observable grooves which formed on the beam surface at supports and load noses were found to be the primary cause of the nonlinearity. An additional geometric nonlinearity at large deflections revealed by finite element modeling may be minimized by using the smallest diameter supports and load noses recommended in ASTM 790. However, frictional constraint of the be...
Intra-abdominal testicular torsion in a horse without signs of colic. A 5-year-old Quarter Horse stallion was admitted for cryptorchidectomy. Abnormalities were not found on physical examination, except for an undescended left testis. Cryptorchidectomy was performed, using an inguinal approach. The tail of the epididymis was in the inguinal canal, and the testis was adjacent to the internal inguinal ring. The testis was dark reddish purple to black, resulting from torsion at the level of the body of the epididymis. On histologic examination, the left testis was necrotic, except for the tunica albuginea and tunica vaginalis visceralis covering the testis. Intra-a...
Pregnancy-associated changes in material properties of the third metacarpal cortical bone in mares. To investigate the effect of late gestation, age, and parity on material properties of third metacarpal (MCIII) cortical bone in mares. Methods: 8 healthy mares (treatment group) that died or were euthanatized within 24 hours after parturition because of foaling complications and 6 age-matched, healthy, nonpregnant mares (control group). Methods: After random assignment for mechanical testing and microradiography, the dorsal half of transverse mid-diaphyseal sections of each MCIII bone was divided into lateral, dorsal, and medial regions. Cylinders of bone from each of the 3 regions were teste...
Residual strength of equine bone is not reduced by intense fatigue loading: implications for stress fracture. Fatigue or stress fractures are an important clinical problem in humans as well as racehorses. An important question in this context is, when a bone experiences fatigue damage during extreme use, how much is it weakened compared to its original state? Since there are very limited data on this question and stress fractures are common in racehorses, we sought to determine the effect of fatigue loading on the monotonic strength of equine cortical bone. Beams were machined from the dorsal, medial and lateral cortices of the third metacarpal bones of six thoroughbred racehorses. Beams from left and...
Ultrasonographic evaluation of the equine placenta by transrectal and transabdominal approach in the normal pregnant mare. The objective of this study was to determine normal variations in the utero placental thickness during mid- and late gestation in the mare. Normal, healthy pregnant mares (n = 9) were examined monthly from 4 mo of gestation until parturition by transrectal and transabdominal ultrasonography. At each examination, the combined thickness of the uterus and the placenta (CTUP) was measured at the placento-cervical junction (transrectally) and at the uterine body or the uterine horns (transabdominally). In addition, the echogenicity of the amniotic and allantoic fluids was evaluated by transrectal u...
1H-NMR study of inter-segmental hydrogen bonds in sperm whale and horse apomyoglobins. NMR signals for HisB5 N(delta)H and HisEF5 N(epsilon)H protons of sperm whale and horse apomyoglobins were assigned and compared with the corresponding signals of the holoproteins in terms of pH and temperature dependence behaviors of their shifts and line widths in order to gain insight into structural difference between the apoproteins and the holoproteins. Since these protons are involved in internal hydrogen bonds at the interfaces between the B helix and the GH corner and between the EF corner and the H helix, local structures of the interfaces in these proteins have been inferred from th...
Total cholinesterase activity in discrete brain regions and retina of normal horses. The research evaluates cholinesterase activity across different brain regions in horses to better understand its role in neuromuscular function and how it can be affected by certain toxic exposures. Cholinesterase […]
Analysis of equine scintigraphical lung images. A method is proposed (1) to create inhalation to perfusion ratio (I/Q) images from equine lung scintiscans and (2) to analyse these I/Q images. This method was applied to five healthy horses in order to establish reference ranges of I/Q distribution pattern. Computed I/Q images were divided in three regions based on the activity due to the inhalation (I) versus perfusion (Q) procedure. For each region a regional mismatching factor (Iri), i.e. the I/Q of the region, and an intraregional mismatching factor (Lri), which expresses the variability of pixels' I/Q within the region, were calculated. ...
High stability of the Ilizarov ringfixator in a metacarpal fracture of an Arabian foal. In a case of I degree open multifragmentary metacarpal fracture of a 4-week-old Arabian foal, an osteosynthesis with the Ilizarov ringfixator was performed. Immediate full weight-bearing (100 kg) was possible, demonstrating the high stability of the Ilizarov ringsystem. After 12 weeks, sufficient bony union was achieved, and the fixator could be removed. At that time, the body weight of the foal was 170 kg. In our opinion, this case proves the high stability and efficiency of the ringsystem under difficult and unusual conditions.
Lateral collateral ligament avulsion of the humeroradial joint in a horse. This report describes traumatic avulsion of the lateral collateral ligament of the humeroradial joint in a horse. The history and diagnostic procedures are included with relevant radiographs and ultrasonographs. The poor prognosis associated with this injury is due to degenerative joint disease.
Radiographical assessment of interphalangeal rotation in the evaluation of equine digital conformation. This study is a part of a work to design a radiographical method to objectively define the conformation of an equine digit and to assess the individual appropriate trimming of a horse. Various angles were measured directly from the phalangeal bones. The authors observed that the bone relief of the sesamoid ligament insertions on the proximal phalanx was an essential landmark to determine the phalangeal alignment. The same angles were measured from specific radiographs and made it possible to quantify the rotation imposed to the proximal phalanx. The authors also noticed that the phalangeal rot...
Age-related differences in collagen crimp patterns in the superficial digital flexor tendon core region of untrained horses. To measure collagen fibril crimp angles and lengths as well as collagen fibril mass-average diameters in central and peripheral regions of the superficial digital flexor tendon of wild horses, to ascertain any age-related changes in either region in the absence of imposed galloping exercise. Methods: Measurements from a random cull of wild horses. Methods: Superficial digital flexor tendon samples were taken from 23 wild horses ranging in age from two to ten years. Methods: Horses were divided into 'young' (< 5 years, n = 10), 'middle-aged' (5 to < 10 years, n = 9) and 'ol...
Brainstem auditory evoked potentials in horses and ponies. Brainstem auditory evoked potentials (BAEPs) were recorded from 27 ponies. The peak and inter-peak (IP) latencies, V:I ratios and dispersal values were determined and the results from each category were compared with each other and with the authors' Thoroughbred BAEP data. Peak latencies were faster for ponies. The V:I ratios and dispersal values had similar characteristics in horses and ponies. In ponies there was a strong trend for IP latencies to be positively correlated with height, inter-aural distance and age. A positive relationship between I-V IP latency and inter-aural distance was co...
Relationship between ossification of the cartilages of the foot and conformation and radiographic measurements of the front feet in Finnhorses. One hundred Finnhorse cadaver front feet were measured and examined both radiographically and visually to report the incidence of various foot problems and their relationship to ossification of the cartilages of the foot. Ossification extending above the proximal border of the navicular bone and/or separate centres of ossification were found in 36 feet, and the lateral cartilages showed more ossification than the medial cartilages. The feet were generally broad with well developed frogs, but the long toe-low heel syndrome was a relatively common finding. Ossification of the cartilages correlat...
The significance of routine radiographic findings with respect to subsequent racing performance and longevity in standardbred trotters. A retrospective cohort study was made of the racing performance of trotters which had been subjected routinely to radiography before they started training and racing. Sixty-one per cent (148) of the 243 horses, foaled in 3 consecutive years, had one or more abnormal findings categorised into 5 relevant groups based on radiography, of which osteochondrosis (OCD) was the most specific diagnosis. Parameters used to reflect racing performance were: proportion of horses starting in races, number of starts per year, earnings per year, earnings per start and racing longevity. No significant associati...
An age-related study of morphology and cross-link composition of collagen fibrils in the digital flexor tendons of young thoroughbred horses. The superficial digital flexor tendon is the most commonly injured tendon in the racing Thoroughbred. Despite the clinical significance of this structure, only limited data exist regarding normal age-related morphology of the tensile units, the collagen fibrils. The age at which these collagen fibrils become mature in composition and structure may be of importance. Consequently, the association of age and collagen fibril crosslink composition, diameter distribution and crimp morphology in the superficial and deep digital flexor tendons of Thoroughbreds up to and including three years of age ha...
Biochemical, histochemical, and immunohistochemical characterization of distal tibial osteochondrosis in horses. To compare the biochemical, histochemical, and immunohistochemical profiles of articular cartilage from horses with naturally acquired distal tibial osteochondrosis (OC) with cartilage from a similar location in clinically normal horses. Methods: 9 affected horses (group 1, 16 OC lesions) and 4 control horses (group 2, 8 normal osteochondral specimens). Methods: OC specimens were collected during arthroscopic removal of the fragment, and control specimens were collected by aseptic osteotomy. Uronic acid, total protein, total glycosaminoglycan (GAG), chondroitin sulfate (CS), and keratan sulfat...
Effects of sex and age on the ossification of the collateral cartilages of the distal phalanx of the Finnhorse and the relationships between ossification and body size and type of horse. The ossification of the collateral cartilages of the distal phalanx was evaluated in dorsopalmar radiographs of the front feet of 202 Finnhorses (101 females and 101 males, aged six months to 20 years) with reference to the sex, age, body measurements and type of horse. Ossification was more common and more extensive in females than in males from about two years of age. In females, the lateral cartilages were significantly more ossified than the medial cartilages; in males, ossification was more symmetrical in the cartilages of each foot. The amount of ossification increased rapidly during the...
Architecture and the division of labor in the extensor carpi radialis muscle of horses. The extensor carpi radialis muscle of the horse is deceptive at first appearance. It has a fusiform shape similar to other forearm extensor muscles. The fiber arrangement also appears long and relatively parallel. However, it may contain two or more compartments that correlate with differing functional roles. Histochemical and immunocytochemical analysis of proximal and distal regions of the muscle (n = 9) demonstrate that the proximal portion of the muscle is composed of a mean of 13% type I, presumed slow twitch, and 61% type IIb, presumed fast twitch fibers. In contrast, the distal compartm...
Laparoscopic abdominal anatomy of foals positioned in dorsal recumbency. Eleven foals (nine cadavers and two anesthetized) positioned in dorsal recumbency were examined to describe normal abdominal anatomy viewed by laparoscopy. The foals ages ranged from 1 to 150 days. Insertion sites were selected for a Verres needle, laparoscope and instrument portals to avoid trauma to the umbilical structures. The abdominal cavity was insufflated to a pressure of 10 to 12 mm Hg using an automatic carbon dioxide insufflator. Laparoscopic examination allowed excellent observation of the umbilical structures, the bladder, the genital tract, the inguinal area, the liver and segmen...
Equine synovial villi: distinctive structural organization of vasculature and novel nerve endings. The structural arrangement and cellular distribution of endothelial and lining cells of the synovial villi were studied in the equine palmar/plantar recess of the metacarpo- and metatarsophalangeal joints by light microscopy and electron microscopy. The extent and distribution of blood vessels varied with villous shape and length. The majority of vessels formed concentric circles in cross and longitudinal sections and probably are arranged in a convoluted, spiral or helical pattern. The villi do not contain smooth muscle cells or typical capillaries as observed in other organs. Under the elect...
[Observations of Setaria equina (Nematoda: Setariidae) with the optical microscope and scanning electron microscope]. Adults of S. equina (Spirurida, Setariidae), 1 male and 2 females, collected from vaginal sac of stallion, were studied by soanning electron microscopy (SEM). The amphids, cephalic and cervical papillae, peribuccal ring, fine transverse bands and bosses of the cuticle, as well as caudal papillae were visualized clearly at this examination. The results of the present survey contribute towards the identification of S. equina, improve the definition of the characters which are demonstrated by common light microscopy and give the exact number of male caudal papillae including the lateral cloacal r...
