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Topic:Anatomy
Anatomy in horses encompasses the study of the structural organization of the equine body, including the bones, muscles, organs, and systems that function together to sustain life and enable movement. Understanding equine anatomy is important for veterinarians, equine scientists, and horse owners, as it provides insights into how horses move, how they respond to external stimuli, and how various conditions can affect their health and performance. Key anatomical features in horses include the musculoskeletal system, which provides support and locomotion; the cardiovascular system, which circulates blood and nutrients; and the respiratory system, which facilitates gas exchange. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the detailed anatomy of horses, focusing on the structure and function of different body systems, their interrelationships, and their relevance to equine health, performance, and veterinary care.
The computed tomographic appearance of equine temporohyoid osteoarthropathy. Equine temporohyoid osteoarthropathy is characterized by progressive osseous proliferation of the temporohyoid articulation and surrounding structures. The diagnosis has generally been made using radiography and endoscopy of the guttural pouch. Recently, computed tomography (CT) has been used in the diagnosis of temporohyoid osteoarthropathy. This study was performed to determine the CT imaging characteristics of temporohyoid osteoarthropathy and to compare these to radiographic and endoscopic findings. CT scans from 16 horses with a final diagnosis of temporohyoid osteoarthropathy were review...
Scintigraphic and radiographic appearance of the sacroiliac region in horses with gait abnormalities or poor performance. Nuclear bone scintigraphy is commonly used in the diagnosis of sacroiliac disease in horses. The aim of the present retrospective study was to determine if there was an association between radiopharmaceutical uptake pattern and radiographic appearance of the sacroiliac region in horses. Seventy-nine horses undergoing bone scintigraphy with Tc-99 m-HDP and radiography of the pelvis because of lameness or poor performance were studied. Subjective and semiquantitative methods were used to characterize and compare radiopharmaceutical uptake between horses. Ventrodorsal radiographs of the region we...
Immunohistochemical analysis of laryngeal muscles in normal horses and horses with subclinical recurrent laryngeal neuropathy. We used immunohistochemistry to examine myosin heavy-chain (MyHC)-based fiber-type profiles of the right and left cricoarytenoideus dorsalis (CAD) and arytenoideus transversus (TrA) muscles of six horses without laryngoscopic evidence of recurrent laryngeal neuropathy (RLN). Results showed that CAD and TrA muscles have the same slow, 2a, and 2x fibers as equine limb muscles, but not the faster contracting fibers expressing extraocular and 2B MyHCs found in laryngeal muscles of small mammals. Muscles from three horses showed fiber-type grouping bilaterally in the TrA muscles, but only in the le...
Lectin-binding sites in isolated equine cumulus-oocyte complexes: differential expression of glycosidic residues in complexes recovered with compact or expanded cumulus. Equine cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs) were analyzed by means of 13 lectins to evaluate their glycoconjugate patterns and to verify differences between COCs recovered with compact (Cp) and expanded (Exp) cumulus. Cumulus cells showed a similar staining pattern in both Cp and Exp COCs with all lectins used, except for a higher reactivity with SNA and GSA II in Cp COCs and SBA in Exp COCs. The zona pellucida (ZP) showed (1) uniform staining with MAL II, RCA(120), and SBA in both Cp and Exp COCs, (2) trilaminar binding pattern with WGA as well as higher Con A reactivity in the outer region of bot...
The heart and its valves in Caspian miniature horse: a topographic study. The Caspian miniature horse is one of the rare small breeds in the north of Iran. In the present study, the position of the heart and its valves were determined topographically in 4 miniature horses. We found that Caspian miniature horses have general similarities, with certain topographical variability, with other horses.
Intrinsic innervation of the horse ileum. This paper describes the morphology and distribution of the enteric nervous system (ENS) cells and fibres immunoreactive for choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), substance P (SP), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), NF200kDa (NF200), and S100 protein. The percentages of subclasses of enteric neurons in the total neuronal population were investigated by the use of anti-PGP 9.5 or anti-NSE antibodies. ChAT-IR myenteric plexus (MP) and submucosal plexus (SMP) neurons were 66+/-7% and 74+/-15%, respectively, whereas those cells expressing nNOS-IR were 38+/-7...
[Characterization of age dependent alterations of the cup of the incisor on the basis of data from Hungarian and German horses]. The authors give a short orientation about the age related parameters of the incisors based on the literature. They examined the question of breed differences with respect to the age determination of horses in the different counties, especially in regard to the English Thoroughbred. In this context they present a new parameter as well as a new approach in data-processing. The cup depth and the yearly abrasion showed high breed-specificity. The relative abrasion indicated that the most intensive wear out is typical for the Thoroughbred. The cup depth and the yearly wear out were different accor...
Equine skin tumours in 20 horses resembling three variants of human melanocytic naevi. Melanocytic tumours are important in horses, especially grey horses. Intradermal common melanocytic naevi, cellular blue naevi and combined cellular blue naevi are subgroups of human melanocytic tumours, which have not been reported in horses. In this study, we describe 20 horses with skin tumours similar to these naevi of humans. These tumours represented individual skin masses in male and female horses of different breeds. Tumours resembling human intradermal common melanocytic naevi were noted in 12 horses aged between 2 and 17 years. Seven horses aged between 4 and 15 years developed cutan...
A cranial intercondylar arthroscopic approach to the caudal medial femorotibial joint of the horse. Current noninvasive techniques for imaging the soft tissue structures of the stifle have limitations. Arthroscopy is commonly used for the investigation and treatment of stifle pain. Cranial and caudal arthroscopic approaches to the femorotibial joints are used. However, complete examination of the axial aspect of the medial femorotibial joint (MFTJ) is not possible currently. Objective: To develop a cranial approach to the caudal pouch of the MFTJ and to assess whether it would allow a more complete examination of the compartment and facilitate the caudomedial approach. Methods: The regional ...
Lesions of the deep digital flexor tendon in the digit: a correlative MRI and post mortem study in control and lame horses. Lameness associated with lesions of the deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) in the digit is now recognised as an important cause of lameness, but there is currently limited information about the pathological nature of the lesions. Objective: To compare: signal intensity changes on magnetic resonance images with histopathology; and histopathological changes in the DDFT from horses with no history of foot-related lameness (Group C) and horses with lesions of the DDFT confirmed using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (Group D). Methods: Transverse sections of the DDFT were harvested from 3 sites in ...
Prevalence of various radiographic manifestations of osteochondrosis and their correlations between and within joints in Dutch warmblood horses. Osteochondrosis (OC) is the most important orthopaedic developmental disorder in horses and may manifest in several different forms. No detailed study on the prevalence and/or interrelation of these forms is available, even though these data are a prerequisite for conclusive genetic studies. Objective: To assess the prevalence of the various manifestations of OC as detected radiographically and to evaluate possible relationships between their occurrence within the same joint and between different joints. Methods: The FP (femoropatellar), TC (tarsocrural) and MCP/MTP (metacarpophalangeal/metata...
Diagnostic exercise: intraosseous epidermoid cysts in the third phalanx of a dressage mare. An 11-yr-old Dressage mare had abnormal gait, and an abscess of the left hoof was suspected but not observed. Radiographic and computerized tomographic evaluations showed a large cystic lesion near the apex of the pedal bone, and a smaller, similar lesion at the lateral wing. Sagittal sections through the affected member revealed two intraosseous cysts at the third phalanx. Histologic and histochemical results characterized the lesions as intraosseous epidermoid cysts of the third phalanx.
Bilateral intraocular glandular choristomas in a Thoroughbred foal. Intraocular choristomas are rare anomalies in domestic animals and are often associated with multiple ocular malformations. A Thoroughbred foal presented for ocular abnormalities and was diagnosed with microphthalmia, corneal dermoids, severe anterior segment dysgenesis (including glandular choristomas), aphakia, retinal dysplasia, and optic nerve hypoplasia. Morphological, histochemical, and immunohistochemical comparisons were made between ocular choristomatous tissues from this foal and lacrimal gland, third eyelid gland, nasopharynx, trachea, and lacrimal sac/nasolacrimal duct from normal ...
Characterization of the magic angle effect in the equine deep digital flexor tendon using a low-field magnetic resonance system. Three isolated equine limbs were imaged with a low-field magnetic resonance system with a vertical magnetic field. Each limb was scanned in multiple positions with mild variation of the angle between the magnetic field and the long axis of the limb. When the long axis of the limb was not perpendicular to the magnetic field, a linear hyperintense signal was present at the palmar aspect of one of the deep digital flexor tendon lobes, at the level of the navicular bone and collateral sesamoidean ligaments, in proton density and T1-weighted pulse sequences. With increased angulation of the limb, t...
Osseous lesions in the metacarpo(tarso)phalangeal joint diagnosed using low-field magnetic resonance imaging in standing horses. We report the use of low-field standing magnetic resonance imaging in the standing horse for the diagnosis of osseous lesions in the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) or metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint that were not apparent using standard radiography. Thirteen horses were studied and all had thickening of the subchondral bone plate and abnormal signal intensity in the adjacent spongiosa in either the condyles of metacarpal/metatarsal III or the proximal phalanx or both. Abnormalities were characterized by diffuse decreased signal intensity on T1-weighting adjacent to the subchondral bone and within t...
Ultrasonographic assessment of laryngohyoid position as a predictor of dorsal displacement of the soft palate in horses. Dorsal displacement of the soft palate is an important cause of poor performance in racehorses, yet its etiology is not fully understood. Diagnosis requires treadmill videoendoscopy, which is not widely available. The relationship of the larynx, the hyoid apparatus, and the remainder of the skull may be important in predisposing horses to dorsal displacement of the soft palate. We hypothesized that this relationship could be accurately assessed in unsedated horses through ultrasonographic examination. Fifty-six racehorses presented for evaluation of poor performance were subjected to treadmill...
Magnetic resonance imaging of the initial active stage of equine laminitis at 4.7 T. Equine laminitis is a severely debilitating disease. There is a poor understanding of the underlying pathophysiology, and traditional imaging modalities have limited diagnostic capacity. High field strength magnetic resonance (MR) imaging allows direct visualization of the laminae, which other modalities do not. This would prove useful both in assessment of clinical patients and in further investigation into the pathophysiology of the disease. The objective of this study was to characterize the anatomic changes within the equine foot associated with the initial active stage of laminitis. Image...
Histologic evaluation of the diversity of epidermal laminae in hooves of horses without clinical signs of laminitis. To evaluate the histologic diversity of epidermal laminae in hooves from horses without clinical signs of laminitis. Methods: Formalin-fixed samples of stratum internum obtained from the mid region of the dorsal aspect of the hoof wall from the forelimbs of 35Thoroughbred cadavers (including foals [n = 9], yearlings [5], 2 year olds [6], racing horses [5], and mares [10]). Methods: Paraffin-embedded laminar tissues were stained with H&E for the evaluation of architectural variety of primary epidermal laminae (PEL) and secondary epidermal laminae (SEL). For detection of cytokeratin (CK) express...
A multifrequency HYSCORE study of weakly coupled nuclei in frozen solutions of high-spin aquometmyoglobin. In this work, we show the extreme power of multifrequency HYSCORE (hyperfine sublevel correlation spectroscopy) techniques to unravel the hyperfine interactions of the electron spin with the remote nuclei in the heme site of high-spin ferric heme proteins. Horse heart aquo-metmyoglobin was used as a model system to demonstrate the power of these techniques. Experimental evidence was collected and assigned to protons of the proximal histidine ligand, to the mesoprotons of the heme ligand, and to two different protons of the distal water ligand. The latter difference relates to the stabilization...
Biological and anatomical evidence for kisspeptin regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis of estrous horse mares. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effects of kisspeptin (KiSS) on LH and FSH secretion in the seasonally estrous mare and to examine the distribution and connectivity of GnRH and KiSS neurons in the equine preoptic area (POA) and hypothalamus. The diestrous mare has a threshold serum gonadotropin response to iv rodent KiSS decapeptide (rKP-10) administration between 1.0 and 500 microg. Administration of 500 microg and 1.0 mg rKP-10 elicited peak, mean, and area under the curve LH and FSH responses indistinguishable to that of 25 microg GnRH iv, although a single iv injection...
Ultrastructure and some pathological pictures of Gastrodicus aegyptiacus (Cobbold, 1876) in Egyptian horses. The surface ultrastructure (SEM) of adult worms and eggs of the equine caecal fluke, Gastodiscus aegyptiacus, together with some pathological observations of the caecum and colon of infected horses were studied. SEM showed that G. aegyptiacus had a disc-like body with anterior cone-like part. The oral sucker was surrounded by numerous dome-shaped papillae. The cone-like part possessed tubercle-like papillae at its anterior third. The large ventral sucker was subterminal with small papillae at its rim. The ventral surface was covered with large cauliflower-like papillae. Microvilli were densely...
Complications of surgery for diseases of the guttural pouch. Guttural pouch diseases pose serious challenges in diagnosis and treatment. Complications from treatment are common and often life-threatening, largely because the unique anatomy of the guttural pouches brings them into intimate contact with the nervous, respiratory, and cardiovascular systems. There is little forgiveness for surgical errors, and so the surgeon should focus on ways to anticipate and prevent them. As with any disease, errors in diagnosis can set the stage for many surgical errors and must be recognized. This article deals with errors that can be expected after the most common s...
Complications of laparoscopic surgery. This article describes surgical complications associated with laparoscopy, how to avoid them, how to recognize them if they do happen, and how to deal with them in the most expedient method possible. Complications of sedation, anesthesia, positioning, the general surgical approach, and complications associated with specific surgical procedures are examined. The best defense against surgical complications is a thorough training program and an understanding of anatomy that will help the surgeon work in the three-dimensional environment while being limited to two dimensions on the monitor. The au...
Complications of equine oral surgery. The vast majority of equine oral procedures are dental-related and, unless great care is taken, almost all such procedures have the potential to cause marked short- or long-term damage to other oral structures. This review of the more common complications of oral surgery begins at the rostral oral cavity with procedures of the incisors, and then moves caudally to deal with complications related to procedures of wolf teeth and cheek teeth, including salivary duct disruption and dental sinusitis. Finally, complications associated with maxillary and mandibular fractures are discussed.
Deep erosions of the palmar aspect of the navicular bone diagnosed by standing magnetic resonance imaging. Erosion of the palmar (flexor) aspect of the navicular bone is difficult to diagnose with conventional imaging techniques. Objective: To review the clinical, magnetic resonance (MR) and pathological features of deep erosions of the palmar aspect of the navicular bone. Methods: Cases of deep erosions of the palmar aspect of the navicular bone, diagnosed by standing low field MR imaging, were selected. Clinical details, results of diagnostic procedures, MR features and pathological findings were reviewed. Results: Deep erosions of the palmar aspect of the navicular bone were diagnosed in 16 matu...
Histological and ultrastructural evidence that recurrent laryngeal neuropathy is a bilateral mononeuropathy limited to recurrent laryngeal nerves. Recurrent laryngeal neuropathy (RLN) is a common and debilitating peripheral nerve disease of horses, but it remains unclear if this disease is a mono- or polyneuropathy. An understanding of the distribution of the neuropathological lesions in RLN affected horses is fundamental to studying the aetiology of this very significant disease of tall horses. Objective: To determine whether RLN should be classified as a mono- or polyneuropathy. Methods: Multiple long peripheral nerves and their innervated muscles were examined systematically in 3 clinically affected RLN horses Results: Severe lesions ...
Cartilage collagen matrix reorientation and displacement in response to surface loading. An investigation of collagen fiber reorientation, as well as fluid and matrix movement of equine articular cartilage and subchondral bone under compressive mechanical loads, was undertaken using small angle X-ray scattering measurements and optical microscopy. Small angle X-ray scattering measurements were made on healthy and diseased samples of equine articular cartilage and subchondral bone mounted in a mechanical testing apparatus on station ID18F of ESRF, Grenoble, together with fiber orientation analysis using polarized light and displacement measurements of the cartilage matrix and fluid...
Corneal stromal invasive squamous cell carcinoma: a retrospective morphological description in 10 horses. To describe the pathomorphological features of corneal stromal invasive squamous cell carcinoma (CSI-SCC) in horses. Methods: A total of 87 equine SCC in the Comparative Ocular Pathology Laboratory of Wisconsin database were retrieved. The signalment and anatomical distribution were summarized. Ten CSI-SCC out of 87 SCCs were further investigated focusing on pathomorphological description. All 10 cases were stained with H&E, periodic acid-Schiff stain and Verhoeff's elastic stain. Results: Four Appaloosas, two Quarter horses, two American Paint, one Pinto and one Thoroughbred horse were affect...
