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Topic:Biomechanics
Biomechanics in horses refers to the study of the mechanical principles that govern movement and physical function in equine species. This field encompasses the analysis of gait, locomotion, and the forces exerted by and upon the horse's musculoskeletal system. Biomechanical studies often involve the use of motion capture technology, force plates, and computer modeling to assess how horses move and how various factors, such as conformation, training, and health status, influence their performance and soundness. Research in equine biomechanics contributes to understanding injury prevention, rehabilitation, and performance optimization. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the mechanics of movement, the impact of external and internal forces, and the applications of biomechanical analysis in equine care and management.
Metacarpophalangeal collateral ligament reconstruction using small intestinal submucosa in an equine model. Xenogeneic porcine small intestinal submucosa (SIS) is a natural, biodegradable matrix that has been successfully used as a scaffold for repair of tissue defects. The goal of this study was to compare a collateral ligament transection surgically reconstructed with an anchored SIS ligament to a sham-operated control procedure for the correction of joint laxity using an equine model. Ten metacarpophalangeal joints from 10 horses had complete transection of the lateral collateral ligament. In 6 horses, the collateral ligament was reconstructed with a multilaminate strip of SIS anchored with screw...
Risk factors for proximal sesamoid bone fractures associated with exercise history and horseshoe characteristics in Thoroughbred racehorses. To assess individual and combined associations of high-speed exercise and horseshoe characteristics with risk of forelimb proximal sesamoid bone fractures and proximal sesamoid bone midbody fractures in Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods: 269 deceased Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods: A case-control study design was used to compare 121 horses with a fracture of at least 1 of 4 forelimb proximal sesamoid bones (75 horses had a midbody fracture) and 148 horses without a forelimb proximal sesamoid bone fracture. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to evaluate potent...
Are distributions of secondary osteon variants useful for interpreting load history in mammalian bones? In cortical bone, basic multicellular units (BMUs) produce secondary osteons that mediate adaptations, including variations in their population densities and cross-sectional areas. Additional important BMU-related adaptations might include atypical secondary osteon morphologies (zoned, connected, drifting, elongated, multiple canal). These variants often reflect osteonal branching that enhances toughness by increasing interfacial (cement line) complexity. If these characteristics correlate with strain mode/magnitude-related parameters of habitual loading, then BMUs might produce adaptive diffe...
Aging enhances a mechanically-induced reduction in tendon strength by an active process involving matrix metalloproteinase activity. Age-associated and degenerative loss of functional integrity in soft tissues develops from effects of cumulative and subtle changes in their extracellular matrix (ECM). The highly ordered tendon ECM provides the tissue with its tensile strength during loading. As age and exercise collide in the high incidence of tendinopathies, we hypothesized that aged tendons fail due to cumulative damage resulting from a combination of diminished matrix repair and fragmentation of ECM proteins induced by prolonged cyclical loading, and that this is an active cell-mediated process. We developed an equine ten...
Forces and pressures beneath the saddle during mounting from the ground and from a raised mounting platform. The objective was to use an electronic pressure mat to measure and compare forces and pressures of the saddle on a horse's back when riders mounted from the ground and with the aid of a mounting platform. Ten riders mounted a horse three times each from the ground and from a 35 cm high mounting platform in random order. Total force (summation of forces over all 256 sensors) was measured and compared at specific points on the force-time curve. Total force was usually highest as the rider's right leg was swinging upwards and was correlated with rider mass. When normalized to rider mass, total fo...
3D kinematics of the equine metacarpophalangeal joint at walk and trot. The metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joint and its supporting soft tissues are common sites of injury in athletic horses. Equine gait analysis has focused on 2D analysis in the sagittal plane and little information is available which describes 3D motions of the MCP joint and their possible role in the development of injuries. The aim was to characterize the 3D rotations of the equine MCP joint during walking and trotting. Three-dimensional trajectories of marker triads fixed rigidly to the third metacarpus and proximal phalanx of the right forelimb of healthy horses were recorded at walk (n = 4) and ...
The effect of induced forelimb lameness on thoracolumbar kinematics during treadmill locomotion. Lameness has often been suggested to result in altered movement of the back, but there are no detailed studies describing such a relationship in quantitative terms. Objective: To quantify the effect of induced subtle forelimb lameness on thoracolumbar kinematics in the horse. Methods: Kinematics of 6 riding horses was measured at walk and at trot on a treadmill before and after the induction of reversible forelimb lameness grade 2 (AAEP scale 1-5). Ground reaction forces (GRF) for individual limbs were calculated from kinematics. Results: The horses significantly unloaded the painful limb by 1...
Validation of vertical ground reaction forces on individual limbs calculated from kinematics of horse locomotion. The purpose of this study was to determine whether individual limb forces could be calculated accurately from kinematics of trotting and walking horses. We collected kinematic data and measured vertical ground reaction forces on the individual limbs of seven Warmblood dressage horses, trotting at 3.4 m s(-1) and walking at 1.6 m s(-1) on a treadmill. First, using a segmental model, we calculated from kinematics the total ground reaction force vector and its moment arm relative to each of the hoofs. Second, for phases in which the body was supported by only two limbs, we calculated the individu...
Structural and biomechanical aspects of equine sacroiliac joint function and their relationship to clinical disease. Pain originating from the sacroiliac joint (SIJ) in horses has long been associated with poor performance, yet specific diagnosis of sacroiliac dysfunction (SID) has been difficult to achieve. Clinical presentation of SID appears to fall into two categories. The first, presenting as pain and poor performance, is responsive to local analgesia of periarticular structures with poorly defined pathology. The second presents primarily as poor performance with bony pathological changes as a result of chronic instability. Diagnostic tests based on biomechanics as well as manual provocation for SIJ pai...
Posture, gait and the ecological relevance of locomotor costs and energy-saving mechanisms in tetrapods. A reanalysis of locomotor data from functional, energetic, mechanical and ecological perspectives reveals that limb posture has major effects on limb biomechanics, energy-saving mechanisms and the costs of locomotion. Regressions of data coded by posture (crouched vs. erect) reveal nonlinear patterns in metabolic cost, limb muscle mass, effective mechanical advantage, and stride characteristics. In small crouched animals energy savings from spring and pendular mechanisms are inconsequential and thus the metabolic cost of locomotion is driven by muscle activation costs. Stride frequency appears...
Effects of vertebral mobilization and manipulation on kinematics of the thoracolumbar region. To measure passive spinal movements induced during dorsoventral mobilization and evaluate effects of induced pain and spinal manipulative therapy (SMT) on passive vertebral mobility in standing horses. Methods: 10 healthy adult horses. Methods: Baseline vertical displacements, applied force, stiffness, and frequency of the oscillations were measured during dorsoventral spinal mobilization at 5 thoracolumbar intervertebral sites. As a model for back pain, fixation pins were temporarily implanted into the dorsal spinous processes of adjacent vertebrae at 2 of the intervertebral sites. Vertebral ...
Effect of toe and heel elevation on calculated tendon strains in the horse and the influence of the proximal interphalangeal joint. The sagittal alteration of hoof balance is a common intervention in horses, with corrective shoeing being one of the most frequently applied methods of managing tendonitis. However, the effect of toe or heel elevation on tendon strains is poorly understood. This study aimed to examine the effect of toe and heel wedges on the superficial digital flexor tendon, deep digital flexor tendon, and the third interosseous muscle or suspensory ligament strains using in vivo data and an accurate subject-specific model. Kinematic data were recorded using invasive markers at the walk and trot. Computerized...
Comparative in vitro biomechanical evaluation of two soft tissue defect products. A soft tissue defect is often an unavoidable consequence of various surgical procedures or a result of trauma. Recently, intraoperative use of xenograft as a patch to the soft tissue defect has become popular with various products available in the market. In this study, mechanical properties of the OrthADAPTtrade mark Bioimplants (Pegasus Biologics, Irvine, CA), new xenograft products composed of collagen from equine pericardium, were evaluated individually and against an existing bioimplant product. The OrthADAPTtrade mark Bioimplants have three subtypes which differ in the degree of crosslin...
Determination of mechanical loading components of the equine metacarpus from measurements of strain during walking. The mechanical environment of the distal limb is thought to be involved in the pathogenesis of many injuries, but has not yet been thoroughly described. Objective: To determine the forces and moments experienced by the metacarpus in vivo during walking and also to assess the effect of some simplifying assumptions used in analysis. Methods: Strains from 8 gauges adhered to the left metacarpus of one horse were recorded in vivo during walking. Two different models - one based upon the mechanical theory of beams and shafts and, the other, based upon a finite element analysis (FEA) - were used to ...
Harnessed vs. mounted standardbreds on the track: changes in gait and physiological variables. It has become apparent through analysis of elite races over the past 20 years that mounted races are always slower than harnessed races when performed by the same horses over the same distances on the same tracks. Objective: To investigate and compare physiological and gait variables in mounted and harnessed activities in trotters. Methods: Ten trotters were taken at random in 2 standardised field exercise tests one week apart: a harnessed and a mounted test with standardised weight jockeys and drivers. Speed, heart rate (HR), respiratory frequency (RF), blood lactate concentration (La), strid...
The effect of head and neck position on the thoracolumbar kinematics in the unridden horse. In many equestrian activities a specific position of head and/or neck is required that is dissimilar to the natural position. There is controversy about the effects of these positions on locomotion pattern, but few quantitative data are available. Objective: To quantify the effects of 5 different head and neck positions on thoracolumbar kinematics of the horse. Methods: Kinematics of 7 high level dressage horses were measured walking and trotting on an instrumented treadmill with the head and neck in the following positions: HNP2 = neck raised, bridge of the nose in front of the vertical; HNP3...
Effects of egg-bar shoes on the 3-dimensional kinematics of the distal forelimb in horses walking on a sand track. Understanding of the biomechanical effects of egg-bar shoes remains incomplete because kinematic studies are usually performed on hard tracks and with skin markers that do not measure the actual 3-dimensional (3D) movements of the 3 digital joints. Objective: To quantify the effects of egg-bar shoes on the 3D kinematics of the distal forelimb in horses walking on a sand track. Methods: Four healthy horses were equipped with ultrasonic markers fixed surgically to the 4 distal segments of the left forelimb. The 3D movements of these segments were recorded while the horses were walking on a sand ...
Head and body centre of mass movement in horses trotting on a circular path. Horses are often worked along a circular trajectory but the mechanics of turning have not been reported. Objective: To develop a methodology for kinematic analysis of horses during circling and to report preliminary findings describing movements of the total body centre of mass (COMbody). Methods: Seventy-five skin markers, distributed over the head, neck, trunk and limbs of 5 sound horses, were tracked in a global coordinate system at 120 Hz as the horses trotted around a small circle. Based on segmental inertial data, 3D positions of the segmental centres of mass and COMbody were calculated....
Evaluation of the force acting on the back of the horse with an English saddle and a side saddle at walk, trot and canter. Force transmission under an English saddle (ES) at walk, trot and canter is commonly evaluated, but the influence of a side saddle (SS) on the equine back has not been documented. Objective: Force transmission under a SS, with its asymmetric construction, is different from an ES in walk, trot and canter, expressed in maximum overall force (MOF), force in the quarters of the saddle mat, and centre of pressure (COP). The biomechanics of the equine back are different under a SS compared to ES. Methods: Thirteen horses without clinical signs of back pain ridden in an indoor riding school with both...
Trot asymmetry in relation to physical performance and metabolism in equine endurance rides. Trot is a symmetric gait and asymmetry might appear or increase during endurance rides due to lameness, pain or excessive fatigue. Objective: To assess whether trot asymmetry increases during endurance competitions, whether it is possible to discriminate between horses with different performance and also its possible relationship with metabolism. Methods: Fifty-eight horses were filmed at trot during the lameness examinations in the vet-gates, before the competition (BCO), and after phases 1 (at 29 km), 2 (at 59 km) and 3 (at the end of the ride, at 80 km) and stride duration (SD) measured in ...
Equine locomotor analysis on vet-gates in endurance events. Fatigue during endurance rides might induce changes in gait pattern that could be difficult to distinguish from subtle lameness. Objective: To assess changes in gait pattern en route, in fore(FL) and hindlimbs (HL) and establish differences between excellent (EP) and good performers (GP). Methods: Seventy-five sound and fit horses that completed endurance rides of 80 km were filmed at trot in the vet-gates (VGs) prior to competitions (VGO), and at 29 km (VG1), 59 km (VG2) and 80 km (VG3). Mean gait velocity (V), stride length (SL), duration (SD) and frequency (SF) were measured. Also, stance (...
Stride parameters and hindlimb length in horses fatigued on a treadmill and at an endurance ride. The relationship between fatigue and stride and/or muscle stiffness requires further study. Objective: To measure stride parameters in horses undergoing fatigue associated with running at submaximal speeds both on a treadmill and in an endurance ride. Objective: Stride frequencies and estimates of hindlimb stiffness would be decreased in fatigued horses. Methods: Horses were fatigued using 2 paradigms: run to exhaustion at a treadmill (4.5 m/sec, 6% incline) and finishing an 80 km endurance ride. Videos were digitised before and after fatigue and analysed for stride parameters: hind limb lengt...
Effects of draw reins on limb kinematics. No data exist on the GRF-kinematics relation due to changes caused by equestrian interventions. Objective: Through the judicious use of draw reins the rider can influence the kinematics of the horse to meet stated goals of dressage training. Relating the results to previously published kinetic data of the same experiment implies a possible relationship between kinetics and kinematics. Methods: The kinematics of 8 sound Swedish Warmblood horses were measured whilst the horses were being ridden with and without draw reins. Three conditions were evaluated: 1) draw reins only (DR), 2) combination ...
Effect of uphill exercise on equine superficial digital flexor tendon forces at trot and canter. One cause of overstrain injury to the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) in horses is the force loaded on the SDFT during repeated running. Therefore, decreasing this force may reduce SDFT injury. It has been reported that strain on the SDFT decreases with a toe-wedge shoe. Uphill courses are used for training of racehorses, and the angle of hoof-sole to the horizon during uphill running is similar to that of the toe-wedge shoe. Objective: To determine the effects of uphill exercise on the force on the SDFT during trotting and cantering. Methods: Arthroscopically implantable force probes...
Energetic cost of locomotion on different equine treadmills. Human athletes run faster and experience fewer injuries when running on surfaces with a stiffness 'tuned' to their bodies. We questioned if the same might be true for horses, and if so, would running on surfaces of different stiffness cause a measurable change in the amount of energy required to move at a given speed? Objective: Different brands of commercial treadmills have pans of unequal stiffness, and this difference would result in different metabolic power requirements to locomote at a given speed. Methods: We tested for differences in stiffness between a Mustang 2200 and a Säto I comme...
Raising heels of hind hooves changes the equine coffin, fetlock and hock joint angle: a kinematic evaluation on the treadmill at walk and trot. Raised heels are commonly recommended for various equine orthopaedic conditions. However, the simultaneous effect of raised heels on the different joint angles of the equine hindlimb throughout the motion cycle has not been previously evaluated. Objective: To document the simultaneous effect of raised heels on the joint angles of the equine hindlimb coffin, fetlock and hock joints. Methods: Eight sound, adult, Warmblood horses were evaluated barefoot and with a heel wedge of 8 or 16 degrees, walking and trotting on a horizontal treadmill. Markers placed on the dorsal and cranial aspect of the ...
Movement between the equine ilium and sacrum: in vivo and in vitro studies. Sacroiliac disease (SID) is an important cause of loss of performance in horses, yet little is known about the biomechanics of movement of the sacroiliac joint (SIJ). Objective: (a) To document the presence of equine SIJ motion by measuring the change in cross-sectional area (CSA) of the dorsal portion of the dorsal sacroiliac ligament (DSIL) during application of manual forces to the pelvis, and to ascertain if this varied between horses with SID and normal horses; (b) To determine the amount and direction of motion available at the equine SIJ using 3-D orientation sensors, and how motion is ...
Oxygen consumption (VO2) during trotting on a 10% decline. Although there have been reports of oxygen consumption measurements of horses running on the level and incline, there are no measurements during decline locomotion. This may be due, in part, to the potential for muscle damage produced by eccentric contractions. In man, running on a 10% decline, VO2 decreased by 35% and stride frequency (SF) decreased by 3% when compared to level locomotion. Objective: The rate of O2 consumption and SF would be decreased in horses on a 10% decline when compared to the level. Methods: Six horses (average 467 +/- 68 kg) were acclimated to trotting on the level an...
Measurements of fitness in thoroughbred racehorses using field studies of heart rate and velocity with a global positioning system. Field based studies of changes in fitness are difficult to conduct in galloping Thoroughbreds. Measurements of heart rate (HR) and real time velocity with a global positioning system (GPS) could provide a method for routine field studies of fitness. Objective: To investigate measurements of fitness in the field without using multiple, standardised steps of increasing velocity in the exercise test. Methods: Twelve healthy 3- to 5-year-old Thoroughbreds were used in the study of reliability, and twelve 2-year-old Thoroughbreds in the investigation of the effect of training. Five second averages ...
