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Topic:Biomechanics
Biomechanics in horses refers to the study of the mechanical principles that govern movement and physical function in equine species. This field encompasses the analysis of gait, locomotion, and the forces exerted by and upon the horse's musculoskeletal system. Biomechanical studies often involve the use of motion capture technology, force plates, and computer modeling to assess how horses move and how various factors, such as conformation, training, and health status, influence their performance and soundness. Research in equine biomechanics contributes to understanding injury prevention, rehabilitation, and performance optimization. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the mechanics of movement, the impact of external and internal forces, and the applications of biomechanical analysis in equine care and management.
Extraction and detection of mRNA from horsehair. After RNA extraction from horsehair shafts and roots, the mRNAs of beta-actin, muscle-type phosphofructokinase, and transforming growth factor-beta1 were detected by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction assay. Low amounts of RNA were present in the horsehair. These specific mRNA transcripts were readily detected when more than three hair roots were used. However, detection of the mRNA transcripts was difficult in the hair shaft. These findings indicate that the small amounts of residual RNA in horsehair roots can be utilized as samples for molecular biological analysis.
Adaptive value of ambling gaits in primates and other mammals. At speeds between the walk and the gallop, most mammals trot. Primates almost never trot, and it has been claimed that they transition directly from a walk to a gallop without any distinctive mid-speed running gait. If true, this would be another characteristic difference between the locomotion of primates and that of most other quadrupedal mammals. Presently, however, few data exist concerning the actual presence or absence of intermediate-speed gaits (i.e. gaits that are used between a walk and a gallop) in primates. Video records of running in twelve primate species reveal that, unlike most...
Shoeing sound warmblood horses with a rolled toe optimises hoof-unrollment and lowers peak loading during breakover. Overload injuries in sport horses commonly occur; shoeing techniques are believed to be important in prevention of these injuries, but there is a paucity of scientific information identifying the potential connection. Objective: To test a horseshoe with a modified rolled toe designed to ease the process of breakover and decrease loading of lesion-prone structures of the distal limb. Methods: Twenty clinically sound Warmblood horses trotted over a track containing a pressure/force measuring system and 6 infrared cameras. The horses were measured with 2 types of shoes, standard flat shoes and sh...
Gait abnormalities caused by selective anesthesia of the suprascapular nerve in horses. To assess gait abnormalities associated with selective anesthesia of the suprascapular nerve (SSN) achieved by use of perineural catheterization and thereby determine the function of that nerve as it relates to gait in horses. Methods: 3 adult horses with no preexisting clinically apparent lameness at a walk. Methods: Each horse was anesthetized; the right SSN was exposed surgically for placement of a perineural catheter to permit delivery of 1 mL of 2% mepivacaine hydrochloride. Six hours after recovery from anesthesia, each horse was videotaped while walking (50-step data acquisition period)...
A nonnatural head-neck position (Rollkur) during training results in less acute stress in elite, trained, dressage horses. This study measured parameters of stress in recreational, trained horses (REC; n = 7) and elite (International Grand Prix level) trained, dressage horses (DRES; n = 5). The training of the DRES horses uses an unnatural head-neck position (Rollkur), whereas in the REC horses such training techniques are not common. The study measured stress by using heart rate variability analysis for 30 min postfeeding in the morning and 30 min postexercise after a morning training session. The study found no significant difference at rest between the REC and DRES horses. During the posttraining measurements, ...
Effect of diameter of the drill hole on torque of screw insertion and pushout strength for headless tapered compression screws in simulated fractures of the lateral condyle of the equine third metacarpal bone. To compare variables for screw insertion, pushout strength, and failure modes for a headless tapered compression screw inserted in standard and oversize holes in a simulated lateral condylar fracture model. Methods: 6 pairs of third metacarpal bones from horse cadavers. Methods: Simulated lateral condylar fractures were created, reduced, and stabilized with a headless tapered compression screw by use of a standard or oversize hole. Torque, work, and time for drilling, tapping, and screw insertion were measured during site preparation and screw implantation. Axial load and displacement were mea...
Influence of electrode placement on effective field strength in the superficial digital flexor tendon of horses. To determine the relationship between the output of an electrical treatment device and the effective field strength in the superficial digital flexor tendon of horses. Methods: Cadaver horse forelimbs without visible defects (n = 8) and 1 live pony. Methods: Microcurrents were generated by a microcurrent electrical therapy device and applied in proximodistal, dorsopalmar, and mediolateral directions in the entire forelimbs, dissected tendons, and the pony with various output settings. Corresponding field strengths in the tendons were measured. Results: A linear relationship was detected betwee...
The influence of the width of the saddle tree on the forces and the pressure distribution under the saddle. As there is no statistical evidence that saddle fit influences the load exerted on a horse's back, this study was performed to assess the hypothesis that the width of the tree significantly alters the pressure distribution on the back beneath the saddle. Nineteen sound horses were ridden at walk and trot on a treadmill with three saddles differing only in tree width. Kinetic data were recorded by a sensor mat. A minimum of 14 motion cycles were used in each trial. The saddles were classified into four groups depending on fit. For each horse, the saddle with the lowest overall force (LOF) was d...
Use of force plate analysis to assess the analgesic effects of etodolac in horses with navicular syndrome. To evaluate the musculoskeletal analgesic effect of etodolac administered PO every 12 or 24 hours in chronically lame horses by use of force plate analysis. Methods: 22 horses with navicular syndrome. Methods: Horses received etodolac (23 mg/kg, PO, q 12 h; n = 7), etodolac (23 mg/kg, PO, q 24 h; 8), or corn syrup (20 mL, PO, q 24 h; control treatment; 7) for 3 days. Combined forelimb peak vertical ground reaction force (PVF) was measured via force plate analysis before the first treatment (baseline) and at 6, 12, 24, and 36 hours after the last treatment. Differences in mean PVF (mPVF) betwee...
Anisotropic Poisson’s ratio and compression modulus of cortical bone determined by speckle interferometry. Young's modulus and Poisson's ratios of 6mm-sized cubes of equine cortical bone were measured in compression using a micro-mechanical loading device. Surface displacements were determined by electronic speckle pattern-correlation interferometry. This method allows for non-destructive testing of very small samples in water. Analyses of standard materials showed that the method is accurate and precise for determining both Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio. Material properties were determined concurrently in three orthogonal anatomic directions (axial, radial and transverse). Young's modulus va...
Hoof growth between two shoeing sessions leads to a substantial increase of the moment about the distal, but not the proximal, interphalangeal joint. There is little insight into the effects of routine farriery on the internal structures of the distal limb in sound horses. Objective: To measure the effect of change in hoof conformation during a shoeing interval on the moments about the proximal and distal interphalangeal joints (PIPJ, DIPJ) and to determine whether and how the horse compensates for this change in hoof conformation. Methods: Both front feet of 9 sound Warmblood horses were measured while standing on a pressure-force measuring system and radiographed in a lateromedial direction shortly after shoeing and 8 weeks later. From th...
Three-dimensional kinematics of the distal forelimb in horses trotting on a treadmill and effects of elevation of heel and toe. Comprehensive understanding of the 3-dimensional (3D) kinematics of the distal forelimb and precise knowledge of alterations induced by dorsopalmar foot imbalance remains incomplete because in vivo studies performed with skin markers do not measure the actual movements of the 3 digital joints. Objective: To quantify the effects of 6 degree heel or toe wedges on the 3D movements of the 4 distal segments of the forelimb in horses trotting on a treadmill. Methods: Three healthy horses were equipped with ultrasonic markers fixed surgically to the 4 distal segments of the left forelimb. The 3D move...
In vivo study on the short-term effect of radiofrequency energy on chondromalacic patellar cartilage and its correlation with calcified cartilage pathology in an equine model. Chondromalacia can cause joint pain and synovial effusion with the potential for developing into osteoarthritis. Thermal chondroplasty using radiofrequency energy (RFE) has been reported to be superior to mechanical debridement for treating chondromalacia. We compared short-term changes in biomechanical properties of articular cartilage after treatment with monopolar (mRFE) or bipolar RFE (bRFE) or mechanical debridement (MD) on experimentally created grade II chondromalacia patellae. Chondromalacia patellae was created arthroscopically in both patellae of 15 ponies. Ten months after surgery, ...
[The art of horseshoeing–between empiricism and science]. To correctly shoe a horse requires the farriers to have a good working knowledge of postural anomalies and movement patterns, as well as of the different concepts of horseshoeing and to be able to apply the appropriate technique to every individual horse they shoe. The correct technique for specific problem cases is frequently a subject of debate amongst specialists and many theories would benefit from objective gait analyses. The case study presented examines the influence of different shoeing conditions on selected gait analysis parameters. The measurements were conducted on a Warmblood mare...
Muscular design in the equine interosseus muscle. We studied the forelimb interosseus muscle in horses, Equus caballus, to determine the muscular properties inherent in its function. Some authors have speculated that the equine interosseus contains muscle fibers at birth only to undergo loss of these fibers through postnatal ontogeny. We describe the muscle fibers in eight interosseus specimens from adult horses. These fibers were studied histochemically using myosin ATPase studies and immunocytochemically using several antibodies directed against type I and type II myosin heavy chain antibodies. We determined that 95% of the fibers were type...
Kinematics of the equine temporomandibular joint. To develop a method of measuring 3-dimensional kinematics of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) in horses chewing sweet feed. Methods: 4 mature horses that had good dental health. Methods: Markers attached to the skin over the skull and mandible were tracked by an optical tracking system. Movements of the mandible relative to the skull were described in terms of 3 rotations and 3 translations. A virtual marker was created on the midline between the rami of the mandibles at the level of the rostral end of the facial crest to facilitate observation of mandibular movements. Results: During the ope...
Osteocyte lacuna population densities in sheep, elk and horse calcanei. Osteocytes, the most prevalent cell type in bone, appear to communicate via gap junctions. In limb-bone diaphyses, it has been hypothesized that these cellular networks have the capacity to monitor habitual strains, which can differ significantly between cortical locations of the same bone. Regional differences in microdamage associated with prevalent/predominant strain mode (tension, compression, or shear) and/or magnitude may represent an important "variable" detected by this network. This hypothesis was indirectly addressed by examining bones subjected to habitual bending for correlations o...
Dynamically similar locomotion in horses. It is possible for animals of very different sizes to use the same patterns of locomotion, i.e. to move in a ;dynamically similar fashion'. This will only occur, however, if relevant biomechanical parameters scale with size in such a way that they compensate for the effects of size differences. Here we apply this principle to understanding the effects of size on locomotion within a species: the domestic horse. We predict that, without any factor to compensate for size differences, detectable deviations from dynamically similar locomotion would occur over the size range present in adult horses....
A mechanical study of ligature security of commercially available pre-tied ligatures versus hand tied ligatures for use in equine laparoscopy. To determine a hand-tied ligature knot configuration, suture size, and suture type that would be an acceptable substitute to commercially available ligature knots for use in equine laparoscopic surgery. Methods: Three-factor ANOVA with the fixed effects being suture type, suture size, and knot type. The dependent variable was ligature security (load to failure). Methods: Commercially available Endoloop and 4 hand-tied slipknot ligatures were compared with a 4-layer square knot. The hand tied ligature knots tested were the 4S modified Roeder knot, the Brooks knot, the modified Roeder knot, and ...
Osteochondral graft fixation using a bioresorbable bone cement. Multiple osteochondral grafts can be used to resurface large joint defects in both humans and horses. In humans, immediate postoperative weight bearing can be prevented, however in the equine, it is unavoidable. Early weight bearing can create detrimental graft micromotion. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of a bioresorbable cement in improving the initial stability of multiple osteochondral graft repairs of large subchondral cystic lesions in the horse. Configurations employed for filling a 20mm diameter cylindrical defect included: (A) twelve 4.5mm diameter grafts with cemen...
Use of gyroscopic sensors for objective evaluation of trimming and shoeing to alter time between heel and toe lift-off at end of the stance phase in horses walking and trotting on a treadmill. To determine whether a shoe with an axialcontoured lateral branch would induce greater lateral roll of the forelimb hoof during the time between heel and toe lift-off at end of the stance phase (breakover). Animals-10 adult horses. Methods: A gyroscopic transducer was placed on the hoof of the right forelimb and connected to a transmitter. Data on hoof angular velocity were collected as each horse walked and trotted on a treadmill before (treatment 1, no trim-no shoe) and after 2 treatments by a farrier (treatment 2, trim-standard shoe; and treatment 3, trim-contoured shoe). Data were converte...
An in vitro biomechanical comparison of a prototype equine metacarpal dynamic compression plate fixation with double dynamic compression plate fixation of osteotomized equine third metacarpal bones. To compare the monotonic biomechanical properties of a prototype equine third metacarpal dynamic compression plate (EM-DCP) fixation with a double broad dynamic compression plate (DCP) fixation to repair osteotomized equine third metacarpal (MC3) bones. Methods: In vitro biomechanical testing of paired cadaveric equine MC3 with a mid-diaphyseal osteotomy, stabilized by 1 of 2 methods for fracture fixation. Methods: Twelve pairs of adult equine cadaveric MC3 bones. Methods: Twelve pairs of equine MC3 were divided into 3 test groups (4 pairs each) for (1) 4-point bending single cycle to failure ...
An in vitro biomechanical comparison of a limited-contact dynamic compression plate fixation with a dynamic compression plate fixation of osteotomized equine third metacarpal bones. To compare the monotonic biomechanical properties and fatigue life of a broad, limited contact, dynamic compression plate (LC-DCP) fixation with a broad, dynamic compression plate (DCP) fixation to repair osteotomized equine 3rd metacarpal (MC3) bones. Methods: In vitro biomechanical testing of paired cadaveric equine MC3 with a mid-diaphyseal osteotomy, stabilized by 1 of 2 methods for fracture fixation. Methods: Twelve pairs of adult equine cadaveric MC3 bones. Methods: Twelve pairs of equine MC3 were divided into 3 test groups (4 pairs each) for (1) 4-point bending single cycle to failure t...
Investigation of the immediate analgesic effects of extracorporeal shock wave therapy for treatment of navicular disease in horses. To measure the acute analgesic properties of extracorporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT) in horses with navicular disease using objective ground reaction forces (GRF). Methods: Prospective study. Methods: Nine client-owned horses with unilateral forelimb lameness caused by navicular disease. Methods: Horses were trotted at 3 m/s over a force plate to record pre-treatment GRF of the lame and contra-lateral forelimbs. After ESWT of the lame limb, applied with a radial unit to each of the frog and heel bulb areas with 1500 pulses at 4 bar and 10 Hz, GRF measurements were repeated at 15 minutes and 2...
Evaluation using hoof wall strain gauges of a therapeutic shoe and a hoof cast with a heel wedge as potential supportive therapy for horses with laminitis. To evaluate using strain gauges, a hoof cast with heel wedge, and a therapeutic shoe with unsupported toe for their effectiveness in redistribution of load from the dorsal hoof wall. Methods: In vitro biomechanical study. Methods: Twenty forelimb specimens. Methods: Rosette strain gauges were placed on the dorsal and lateral hoof wall of 20 normal shaped hooves. Limbs were loaded vertically using a tensile testing machine with a 1 Hz sinusoidally cycling load up to 3000 N during 15 seconds. Mean values of principal strain and direction at 2500 N load were calculated for 3 experimental conditio...
An in vitro evaluation of plate luting using osteotomized equine third metacarpal bones with a limited contact-dynamic compression plate. To evaluate the effects of plate luting on the biomechanical properties of a broad limited contact-dynamic compression plate (LC-DCP) fixation to repair osteotomized equine 3rd metacarpal (MC3) bones. Methods: In vitro biomechanical testing of paired cadaveric equine MC3 with a mid-diaphyseal osteotomy, stabilized by LC-DCP fixation, with 1 of the pair luted with polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA). Methods: Ten pairs of adult equine cadaveric MC3 bones. Methods: Ten pairs of equine MC3 were divided into 2 test groups (5 pairs each) for (1) palmarodorsal 4-point bending single cycle to failure testi...
Ex vivo strength comparison of bioabsorbable tendon plates and bioabsorbable suture in a 3-loop pulley pattern for repair of transected flexor tendons from horse cadavers. To test the failure strength and energy of 2 bioabsorbable implants applied to transected deep digital flexor tendons (DDFT) from adult horses. Methods: Ex vivo biomechanical experiment. Methods: Twelve pairs of deep digital flexor tendons harvested from the forelimbs of fresh equine cadavers. Methods: Poly-L-lactic acid tendon plates were custom manufactured for application to the cylindrical surface of an adult equine deep digital flexor tendon. Twelve pairs of DDFTs were transected 2 cm distal to the insertion of the distal check ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon. One tendon of eac...
Measurement of articular cartilage stiffness of the femoropatellar, tarsocrural, and metatarsophalangeal joints in horses and comparison with biochemical data. To determine normal cartilage stiffness values in different weight-bearing and non-weight-bearing areas of 3 different equine joints, and to evaluate the relationship between cartilage stiffness and glycosaminoglycan (GAG) and collagen content. Methods: Compressive stiffness of the articular cartilage was measured in 8 horse cadaver femoropatellar (FP), tarsocrural (TC), and metatarsophalangeal (MT) joints. Gross evaluation, collagen content, GAG content, and histologic appearance were assessed for each measurement location. Methods: Eight equine cadavers (4 intact females, 4 castrated males; ...
Scaling of skeletal muscle shortening velocity in mammals representing a 100,000-fold difference in body size. To fully understand the effect of scaling on skeletal muscle shortening velocity (V (0)), it is important to know which phenotypic characteristics drive the changes between species. The purpose of the current investigation was to compare the effects of body mass and femur length, as an estimate of total limb length, on V (0) in species that cover a 100,000-fold range of body masses. Using the slack test procedure, V (0) was determined for fibers expressing types I and IIa myosin heavy chain (MyHC) isoforms in the mouse, rat, dog, human, horse, and rhinoceros under identical experimental condit...
