The skeletal system in horses comprises a complex structure of bones that provide support, protection, and mobility. Equine bones are involved in various physiological functions, including mineral storage and hematopoiesis. The bone structure in horses is categorized into different types, such as long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones, each serving specific roles in movement and stability. Research in this area explores topics such as bone development, remodeling, and the impact of nutrition and exercise on bone health. This page gathers peer-reviewed studies and academic articles that focus on the anatomy, physiology, and pathology of bones in horses, offering insights into conditions such as fractures, bone diseases, and the effects of aging on the equine skeletal system.
Jackson WA, Stick JA, Arnoczky SP, Nickels FA.To compare the quality of second-intention healing and that of compacting sternally harvested cancellous bone into subchondral bone defects of the medial femoral condyle in horses. Methods: A controlled experiment using a surgical technique that minimizes soft tissue trauma, customized for consistency among horses. Methods: Ten horses, aged 2 to 5 years, free of hindlimb lameness and with radiographically normal stifles. Methods: After a 12.7-mm-diameter x 19-mm-deep defect was created into randomly selected medial femoral condyles, bone and cartilage healing was evaluated over a 6-month perio...
Hoffman RM, Lawrence LA, Kronfeld DS, Cooper WL, Sklan DJ, Dascanio JJ, Harris PA.Hydrolyzable carbohydrate intake in horse diets may become excessive when rapidly growing pastures are supplemented with grain-based concentrates. The substitution of fat and fiber for hydrolyzable carbohydrate in concentrates has been explored in exercising horses but not in young, growing horses. Our objective was to compare bone development in foals that were fed pasture and concentrates rich in sugar and starch (corn, molasses) or fat and fiber (corn oil, beet pulp, soybean hulls, oat straw). Forty foals were examined, 20 each in 1994 and 1995. In each year, 10 mares and their foals were f...
Tischner M.In the present study the growth and development of three pairs of matching gender foals from birth to maturity were compared. One Polish Pony embryo of each pair was transferred from a donor mare (mass 387-400 kg) to a much larger heavy type recipient mare (mass 561-780 kg). The other embryo of each pair underwent normal gestation (control). The transferred and control horses were examined at 9 and 13 years of age, and X-ray pictures were taken of their front legs to measure the length of the bones. On the basis of the results of this study, it is concluded that the processes of growth and dev...
Uhlhorn H, Carlsten J.The aim was to investigate radiographic findings of subchondral sclerosis and subchondral lucency in the dorsoproximal-dorsodistal (DPr-DDi) projection of the third carpal bone (C3) in relation to clinical appearance and to prognosis for racing. In a retrospective study, case records of 89 Standardbred trotters diagnosed with traumatic carpitis confirmed with intra-articular anaesthesia were examined. Records included data on degree of lameness at presentation and after flexion tests and a radiographic examination of the carpus, including a DPr-DDi projection of the C3. Subchondral lucency was...
Boswell JC, Schramme MC, Wilson AM, May SA.A radiological study was performed to test the hypothesis that osteoarthritis of the scapulohumeral joint in Shetland ponies is secondary to shoulder dysplasia. Animals were selected into 3 groups: Group 1: Shetland ponies with a radiological and clinical diagnosis of scapulohumeral osteoarthritis (n = 8); Group 2: Shetland ponies without forelimb lameness (n = 12); Group 3: Horses/ponies without a history or clinical signs of forelimb lameness (n = 22). Anatomical indices were measured from mediolateral radiographs of a scapulohumeral joint from each animal. There was a significant difference...
Leutenegger CM, von Rechenberg B, Huder JB, Zlinsky K, Mislin C, Akens MK, Auer J, Lutz H.Specific amplification and quantitation of nucleic acid sequences by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) has been extensively used for the detection of viral infection and gene expression. Although successful amplification of DNA and RNA sequences extracted from paraffin embedded tissue have been described, there are presently no reports available regarding RNA analysis from bone and calcified tissues embedded in hydrophobic acrylic resin. Here we describe a general method for quantitation of specific mRNA sequences extracted from undecalcified bone sections, fixed in paraformaldehyde, and emb...
Dutton DM, Watkins JP, Honnas CM, Hague BA.To evaluate the response to various treatments and long-term outcome of foals with tarsal valgus deformities. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: 39 foals with tarsal valgus deformities. Methods: Data collected from medical records, included signalment, history, reason for admission, and clinical findings. Radiographic views of the tarsus were evaluated for incomplete ossification of tarsal bones and were classified as normal in appearance, type-I incomplete ossification, or type-II incomplete ossification. Treatment and athletic outcome were documented for each foal. Results: Radiographic ...
Morisset S, Hawkins JF, Kooreman K.A 6-year-old Paint mare undergoing treatment for a degloving injury of the right metatarsus developed a non-weight-bearing lameness 19 days after admission. Diagnostic nerve blocks localized the source of pain to the area between the tarsus and the metatarsophalangeal joint. Radiography of the metatarsus and metatarsophalangeal joint, arthrocentesis of the metatarsophalangeal joint, and ultrasonography of the flexor tendons, flexor tendon sheath, and suspensory ligament failed to identify the cause of the lameness. The horse was anesthetized and intraosseous pressure was measured in the left a...
Uhlhorn H, Eksell P.To estimate the extent of the third carpal bone (C3) visible for evaluation in the dorsoproximal-dorsodistal oblique projection of the distal row of carpal bones, 13 forelimbs collected at post mortem from 7 horses were examined radiographically. The limbs were frozen with the carpal joints flexed then radiographed using fixed beam-cassette angles of 15 degrees to 45 degrees, at 5 degree intervals. The influence of beam-cassette angle on; the depth of the proximal articular surface examined, the radiographic appearance of C3 and the assessment of subchondral sclerosis was evaluated. Beam-casse...
Eksell P, Uhlhorn H, Carlsten J.Radiographs from 196 tarsi in 98 Icelandic horses were evaluated to compare the accuracy of four different projections in detecting radiographic signs of degenerative joint disease in the distal tarsus. The extent and localization of tarsal degenerative joint disease found in one projection when reading all four projections of the same tarsus together was compared with the combined findings from all four projections. The results of reading individual radiographic projections without knowledge of the other three projections was also evaluated. Degenerative joint disease was detected most freque...
Ruohoniemi M, Tervahartiala P.Computed tomography (CT) was performed on 12 Finnhorse cadaver forefeet with known radiographic changes in the navicular bone (poor corticomedullary junction, irregular appearance of the flexor central eminence, uneven or unequal thickness of the flexor cortex, and/or irregular outline of the proximal or distal flexor margin). The purpose was to confirm the radiographic findings and to investigate if further information of the flexor aspect of the bone could be gained with CT. In CT, the midsagittal outline as well as the internal structure of the bones varied greatly. Different combinations o...
Ehrlich PJ, Dohoo IR, O'Callaghan MW.To document anatomic patterns of scintigraphic uptake and related orthopedic disease associated with racing activity in Standardbred horses. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: 64 Standardbred horses evaluated for lameness. Methods: Medical records at the time of discharge were reviewed, and information regarding signalment; history; results of lameness examination, scintigraphy, and radiography; diagnosis; and treatment were obtained. Results: 274 areas of increased radiopharmaceutical uptake were identified. Scintigrams of 218 limbs (106 forelimbs, 112 hind limbs) were available for revie...
Hunt WF, Thomas VG, Stiefel W.Studies of growth and conformation require statistical methods that are not applicable to subjective conformation standards used by breeders and trainers. A new system was developed to provide an objective approach for both science and industry, based on analysis of video images to measure aspects of conformation that were represented by angles or lengths. A studio crush was developed in which video images of horses of different sizes were taken after bone protuberances, located by palpation, were marked with white paper stickers. Screen pixel coordinates of calibration marks, bone markers and...
Dixon PM, Tremaine WH, Pickles K, Kuhns L, Hawe C, McCann J, McGorum B, Railton DI, Brammer S.A review of 400 horses referred because of dental disorders showed 44 cases to suffer from primary disorders of their incisors and 11 from canine or 1st premolar teeth disorders. The remaining 345 horses suffered from primary disorders of the cheek teeth. Disorders of incisors included traumatic damage to teeth and their supporting bones, retained deciduous, displaced and supernumerary incisors; brachygnathia and abnormalities of wear, with most of the latter disorders being secondary to primary disorders of the cheek teeth Only 3 cases of apical infection of incisors were recognised. Most cas...
Cripps PJ, Eustace RA.Lateromedial radiographic projections were made from the feet of 25 normal horses and 3 angles and 3 distances were measured. From these, normal ranges of calculated variables were obtained. The width and length of each foot and the height of the horse at the withers was also measured. In view of its possible importance in clinical laminitis, particular attention was paid to 'founder' distance (D). This is the vertical distance between the proximal limit of the dorsal hoof wall and the proximal limit of the extensor process of the distal phalanx. There were significant differences between bree...
Booth TM.Severe, chronic lameness in the left forelimb of a five-year-old Arab stallion was localised to the bicipital bursa by local anaesthesia and gamma scintigraphy. Radiographic and ultrasonographic examinations of the proximal humeral tubercles and bicipital bursa revealed new bone production in the region of the intertubercular grooves and irregularities in the density of the soft tissues of the bicipital tendon and bursa. An endoscopic examination of the bicipital bursa with a standard arthroscope under general anaesthesia was a useful diagnostic procedure. The stallion was euthanased, and mark...
Lopez MJ, Wilson DG, Vanderby R, Markel MD.To compare the mechanical properties of two stabilization methods for ostectomized equine third metacarpi (MC3): (1) an interlocking nail system and (2) two dynamic compression plates. Animal or Sample Population-Ten pairs of adult equine forelimbs intact from the midradius distally. Methods: Ten pairs of equine MC3 were divided into two test groups (five pairs each): caudocranial four-point bending and torsion. Interlocking nails (6 hole, 13-mm diameter, 230-mm length) were placed in one randomly selected bone from each pair. Two dynamic compression plates one dorsally (12 hole, 4.5-mm broad)...
Wilson DA, Keegan KG, Carson WL.This study compared the mechanical properties of the normal intact suspensory apparatus and two methods of fixation for repair of transverse, midbody fractures of the proximal sesamoid bones of adult horses: transfixation wiring (TW) and screws placed in lag fashion (LS). Methods: An in vitro, paired study using equine cadaver limbs mounted in a loading apparatus was used to test the mechanical properties of TW and LS. Methods: Seventeen paired (13 repaired, 4 normal) equine cadaver limbs consisting of the suspensory apparatus third metacarpal bone, and first and second phalanges. Methods: The...
Herthel D, Hood DM.This article focuses on the initial assessment of the horse affected with chronic laminitis. Variations in the clinical presentation and primary considerations in making a differential diagnosis are included. The elements of a clinical history essential to sound, therapeutic management, and prognosis are summarized. The physical and radiographic assessment of the digital lesions and diagnostic approaches to the common systemic aspects of the disease are presented and discussed.
Martens P.An ossicle associated with the palmar aspect of the carpus is described in five horses. The size of the ossicle varied from 3 x 4 mm to approximately 12 x 10 mm. The ossicles were located at the junction of the proximal and distal rows of carpal bones, between the palmaromedial aspect of the fourth carpal bone and the ulnar carpal bone. In 3 horses they were bilateral, in one horse unilateral, and only one limb was examined in the remaining horse. In all horses it was an incidental finding and not regarded to be a pathologic entity.
Tudor RA, Ramirez O, Tate LP, Gerard MP.A 1-month-old male American Paint Horse was evaluated for a hard swelling on the right side of the maxillary region. On radiographs there was a large, expansile outpouching of the right maxillary bone between the second and third premolar teeth. Computed tomography further characterized the expansile lesion to have a soft tissue component and to originate in the region of a caudal maxillary tooth. Surgical reconstruction of the defect was unsuccessful and the animal was euthanetized. Based on failure to find histopathologic evidence of a neoplasm or cyst, the diagnosis was a congenital malform...
Chiappe A, Gonzalez G, Fradinger E, Iorio G, Ferretti JL, Zanchetta J.In this study, we assessed the potential value of free serum osteocalcin or bone gla protein (BGP), the most abundant non collagenous matrix protein found in bone and dentin, to reflect changes of bone turnover in thoroughbred horses. Levels of osteocalcin were analyzed in serum samples of 54 clinically normal animals divided into three groups (A, B, C) according to age: 8, 16-18 and 24-36 months, in order to determine the standard for young horses of different age and sex. Serum BGP was measured by an in-house developed double antibody radioimmunoassay using bovine antigen. The mean BGP level...
Zekas LJ, Bramlage LR, Embertson RM, Hance SR.The objective of this retrospective study was to provide a detailed description of the characteristics of condylar fractures represented in a population of 135 horses who sustained 145 fractures. Records and radiographic studies were examined. Fifty-nine percent of the horses were male and the majority Thoroughbreds. The distribution of fractures was 37% incomplete-nondisplaced, 30% complete-nondisplaced and 32% complete-displaced. The right front was more likely to sustain a complete-displaced fracture, whereas the left front was more likely to sustain an incomplete-nondisplaced fracture. For...
Toews AR, Bailey JV, Townsend HG, Barber SM.To examine the amount of heat generated in equine cortical bone by a 6.2-mm drill, using low- and high-speed and controlled feed rate drilling. Methods: 10 metacarpal bones harvested from five 2-year-old draft-type horses. Methods: Drilling on metacarpal bones was done using a machine shop mill with which the feed rate and drill speed could be precisely controlled. Bones were drilled, using 6 combinations of feed rate (1, 2, and 3 mm advance/s) and drill speed (317 and 1,242 revolutions/min [rpm], with maximal temperatures recorded by thermocouples placed 1, 1.5, and 2 mm from the drill. Maxim...
Sasaki M, Endo H, Yamagiwa D, Yamamoto M, Arishima K, Hayashi Y.The skeletal feature was observed in Przewalski's horse (Equus przewalskii) and the domestic horse (E. caballus). As results of the observations, remarkable differences were found in the scapula. The caudal border of the scapula in Przewalski's horse is curved in the caudal direction more than that of the domestic horse. Moreover, in the domestic horse, the sharp caudal border is formed by the shift of the outer muscular line (Linea muscularis) to the border. In Przewalski's horse, however, the caudal border is rounded because the outer muscular line does not shift to the border but lies besid...
Frisbie DD, Trotter GW, Powers BE, Rodkey WG, Steadman JR, Howard RD, Park RD, McIlwraith CW.To evaluate the effect of arthroscopic subchondral bone microfracture on healing of large chondral defects in horses. Methods: Short- (4 months) and long-term (12 months) in vivo experimental chondral defect model. Methods: 10 horses, aged 2 to 5 years. Methods: Each horse had a 1 cm2 full-thickness chondral defect created in both radial carpal bones and both medial femoral condyles. One carpus and one femoral condyle of each horse had the subchondral bone plate under the defect perforated using an orthopedic awl. All horses were exercised, five horses were evaluated after 4 months and five ho...
Dallap BL, Bramlage LR, Embertson RM.The purpose of this study was to evaluate screw fixation with cortical drilling as a surgical treatment for dorsal cortical stress fractures of MCIII in the Thoroughbred racehorse. Details of age, sex, limb affected, fracture assessment, and post operative recommendations were obtained from medical records and radiographs. Fracture healing was assessed radiographically at the time of screw removal. Performance evaluation was determined from race records obtained from The Jockey Club Information System, Lexington, Kentucky. Fifty-six Thoroughbred racehorses were treated surgically for stress fr...
Baird DH, Pilsworth RC.Anecdotal evidence suggested that many cases of third tarsal bone (T3) fracture encountered clinically were associated with an abnormal shape to this bone. The radiographs of 10 normal horses and 10 horses affected with slab fracture of T3 were therefore examined to ascertain if any pre-existent radiological abnormality was present in cases of fracture. Measurement of the maximum and minimum width between the proximal and distal articular surfaces of the dorsolateral aspect of this bone was carried out on a standardised dorso-50 degrees medial-palmarolateral radiographic projection of the tars...
Berner D, Mader D, Groß C, Gerlach K.In magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examinations, moderate to severe changes of the distal sesamoidean impar ligament (DSIL) were found in horses with lameness localized to their feet. Histologic abnormalities were detected more commonly in lame horses. Because of its heterogeneity and small thickness, evaluation of the DSIL in MRI can be challenging. The aim of the study was to determine the optimal sequence and the ideal transverse perpendicular angle for visualization of the DSIL before and after arthrography of the distal interphalangeal joint (DIPJ). Twenty-five cadaver forelimbs were exa...
Les CM, Stover SM, Keyak JH, Taylor KT, Willits NH.The distribution of material properties within the equine third metacarpal bone (MC3), and its possible effect on the mechanics of the structure, was quantitatively evaluated using single-load-to-failure compressive materials testing of specimens from ten horses. Bone samples from six regions within five proximodistal levels of MC3 were milled into right cylinders and compressed at a strain rate of 0.01 s-1. Diaphyseal MC3 bone material was stiffer, stronger, deformed less to yield and failure, and absorbed more energy to yield, than metaphyseal cortical bone material. Lateral and medial MC3 c...
Pettersson H.A series of 79 fractures of the pedal bone in various types of horses are reported and the clinical features described. The fractures were of 3 types--intra-articular or extra-articular, involving the wing of the pedal bone, and fractures of the extensor process. Forty-five horses with a fractured wing of the pedal bone were treated conservatively and 11 by immobilisation of the bony fragment with a compression screw. Conservative treatment was usually successful in the extra-articular fractures. Intra-articular fractures treated conservatively in animals under 3 years had a good prognosis. Th...
Gudehus T, Sod GA, Riggs LM, Mitchell CF, Martin GS.To compare the mean number of cycles to failure under axial compression of equine proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joint arthrodesis constructs created by 2 parallel transarticular Acutrak Plus screws (AP-TS) or 2 parallel transarticular 5.5 mm cortical screws inserted in lag fashion (AO-TLS). Methods: Paired in vitro biomechanical testing of 2 methods of stabilizing cadaveric adult equine forelimb PIP joints. Methods: Cadaveric adult equine forelimbs (n=5 pairs). Methods: For each forelimb pair, 1 PIP joint was stabilized with AP-TS and 1 with AP-TLS. The 5 construct pairs were tested for cycli...
Shaffer SK, Sachs N, Garcia TC, Fyhrie DP, Stover SM.To assess the motion of the proximal sesamoid bones (PSBs) relative to the third metacarpal bone (MC3) of equine forelimbs during physiologic midstance loads. Methods: 8 musculoskeletally normal forelimbs (7 right and 1 left) from 8 adult equine cadavers. Methods: Each forelimb was harvested at the mid-radius level and mounted in a material testing system so the hoof could be moved in a dorsal direction while the radius and MC3 remained vertical. The PSBs were instrumented with 2 linear variable differential transformers to record movement between the 2 bones. The limb was sequentially loaded ...
Zoppa AL, Santoni B, Puttlitz CM, Cochran K, Hendrickson DA.To compare the biomechanical characteristics of 2 arthrodesis techniques for the equine proximal interphalangeal joint (PIP) using either a 3-hole 4.5 mm locking compression plate (LCP) or 3-hole 4.5 mm narrow dynamic compression plate (DCP), both with 2 transarticular 5.5 mm cortex screws. Methods: Experimental. Methods: Cadaveric adult equine forelimbs (*n=6 pairs). Methods: For each forelimb pair, 1 limb was randomly assigned to 1 of 2 treatment groups and the contralateral limb by default to the other treatment group. Construct stiffness, gap formation across the PIP joint, and rotation ab...
McClure SR, Watkins JP, Ashman RB.To evaluate an intramedullary interlocking nail for stabilization of transverse femoral osteotomies in foals. Methods: A transverse osteotomy and restabilization with an intramedullary interlocking nail was performed on the right femur in three foals and the left femur in three foals. Methods: Six foals weighing 149 to 207 kg. Methods: The femur was destabilized with a transverse middiaphyseal osteotomy and repaired with a 0.5-in (12.7 mm) interlocking nail. The implanted femurs were radiographed monthly until completion of the study 6 months after surgery. At the completion of the study, all ...
Barber SM.The horse, a flight animal that is used extensively by man, frequently receives injuries to its neck or head that result mostly from its management and handling. Better facilities, training of the horse, and horsemanship skills of the handler could prevent many of these injuries. Because many body systems can be involved, with potentially major consequences regarding health, performance, and appearance, early recognition of trauma and competent treatment are crucial. Progress has been made in the treatment of some tracheal and esophageal injuries. Severe tracheal trauma and rupture of the esop...
Espinosa P, Lacourt M, Alexander K, David F, Laverty S.To identify the prevalence of fragmentation of the proximal tubercle of the talus (FPTT) in a hospital population of horses, characterize the anatomic features of the affected area and fragments, and describe clinical findings, diagnosis, treatment, and outcome for horses with FPTT. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: 9 horses with FPTT. Methods: 2,543 radiographic views of the tarsal region of 1,526 horses that were evaluated between June 2004 and December 2010 were reviewed. Medical case records for horses with detectable FPTT were retrieved, and signalment, history, clinical signs,...
Pearce SG, Grace ND, Firth EC, Wichtel JJ, Holle SA, Fennessy PF.The effect of copper supplementation of pasture fed mares and foals on the copper status of the foals, in terms of plasma, soft tissue and bone copper concentrations and caeruloplasmin activity, was investigated. Twenty-one Thoroughbred foals from either control mares (n = 9), or copper-supplemented mares (n = 12) were divided randomly into control (pasture only, n = 10) or supplemented (pasture and oral copper sulphate, n = 11) groups. The pasture diet was grazed by all animals, and contained 4.4-8.6 mg Cu/kg dry matter (DM). The copper supplement for the mares contained copper sulphate equiv...
Griffin JF, Young BD, Fosgate GT, Walker MA, Watkins JP.We have observed focal skeletal muscle uptake of 99mTechnetium-hydroxymethylene diphosphonate (Tc-HDP), which could mimic a tibial lesion, in horses following peroneal nerve blocks. To characterize this observation further, 45 bone phase scintigrams were performed in 12 horses undergoing peroneal nerve blocks. Scans were performed before, and 1, 3, 7, and 14 days postblock. The superficial and deep branches of the peroneal nerve were blocked by injecting 10 ml of 2% mepivacaine in one limb and 20 ml in the other. Images were evaluated for uptake at the block site and uptake likely to mimic a t...
Hanson PD, Markel MD.As more sophisticated research is performed to refine fracture fixation techniques for horses, it is important that normal values for the geometric properties of the bones of the appendicular skeleton be determined and that suitable controls be available. We evaluated the geometric properties of total bone width, cortical bone width, and medullary canal/trabecular bone width measured from 2 radiographic projections of equine long bones (humerus, radius, third metacarpal bone, femur, tibia, and third metatarsal bone) obtained from a general population of horses. Measurements were performed on s...
Getman LM, McKnight AL, Richardson DW.The objective of this report was to provide an anatomic description of the equine palmar lateral outpouching of the middle carpal joint by comparing its arthroscopic and magnetic resonance (MR) contrast arthrography appearance and to define the structures within the palmar lateral outpouching of the middle carpal joint that can be assessed arthroscopically. MR contrast arthrography was performed on seven cadaveric limbs; images were compared with those obtained during arthroscopic exploration of the palmar lateral outpouching of the middle carpal joint. Gross dissection was performed to confir...
Kim W, Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW, Firth EC, Broom ND.To describe and measure histologic features of midcarpal joint cartilage defects in Thoroughbreds and evaluate the influence of early conditioning exercise on defect development. Methods: 24 midcarpal joints from twelve 18-month-old Thoroughbreds. Methods: Midcarpal joints from 12 horses (6 exercised spontaneously at pasture only and 6 given additional conditioning exercise beginning at a mean age of 3 weeks were evaluated. Gross cartilage defects were assessed histologically. Third and radial carpal bones were categorized with regard to the presence or absence of calcified cartilage (CC) abno...
Kadic LIM, Rodgerson DH, Newsom LE, Spirito MA.Osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) of the distal intermediate ridge of the tibia (DIRT) is commonly identified on either the lateral to medial (LM) or dorso45°medial-plantarolateral oblique (D45M-PLO) projection of the tarsus. This manuscript describes a retrospective case series out of Hagyard Equine Medical Institute, for which medical records and radiographic projections of the tarsus were reviewed, consistent with Keeneland's repository requirements. This original investigation identified seven yearling Thoroughbred horses between 2008 and 2018 with radiographic signs of atypical osteochondr...
Creel JA, Stover SM, Martin RB, Fyhrie DP, Hazelwood SJ, Gibeling JC.The compliance technique has been used to monitor crack length during fracture and fatigue testing of materials. Difficulties arise when this technique is applied to anisotropic biological materials such as bone. In this tutorial, two different methods of analyzing compliance calibration data are described: the standard ASTM method and a new approach developed by the authors specifically for anisotropic materials. An example is given showing how data from equine cortical bone can be analyzed. In this example, calibration tests were conducted on thirty-six three point bend specimens machined fr...
Meagher DM, Aldrete AV.Lateral luxation of the superficial digital flexor tendon from the calcaneal tuber occurs in horses as a result of tearing or rupture of the medial retinaculum of the tendon. This report describes the repair of this condition in 2 Thoroughbred race horses, using a surgical technique in which 2 cancellous bone screws were placed in the calcaneus lateral to the tendon, along with suturing the medial retinaculum.
Rovel T, Duchateau L, Saunders J, Vandenberghe F, Vanderperren K.Narrowing of the equine cervicothoracic intervertebral foramina (IF) has the potential to cause forelimb lameness and/or neck pain although limited information is available on CT of the IF. The aims of this retrospective, analytical study were to describe a protocol for quantifying CT cervicothoracic IF size; evaluate the repeatability of IF size measures; test associations between IF size and adjacent articular process (AP) size, ventral extent, and anatomic location; and determine the proportion of IF with narrowing. Computed tomographic images were acquired in 20 Warmblood horses that prese...
Young AC, Dimock AN, Puchalski SM, Murphy B, Spriet M.Osseous resorption of the flexor surface of the distal phalanx of the horse has been identified previously using magnetic resonance (MR) imaging; however, little is known about the prevalence and characteristics of this lesion. Objective: To establish the MR prevalence of resorptive lesions in the flexor surface of the distal phalanx and identify concurrent lesions associated with this finding and associations between the MR and radiographic findings. Methods: Horses with distal extremity MR and radiographs performed within 2 weeks of each other were included in the study. The flexor surface o...
Kaashoek M, Hobbs SJ, Clayton HM, Aerts P, Nauwelaerts S.To reduce anatomically unrealistic limb postures in a virtual musculoskeletal model of a horse's forelimb, accurate knowledge on forelimb joint constraints is essential. The aim of this cadaver study is to report all orientation and position changes of the finite helical axes (FHA) as a function of joint angle for different equine forelimb joints. Five horse cadaver forelimbs with standardized cuts at the midlevel of each segment were used. Bone pins with reflective marker triads were drilled into the forelimb bones. Unless joint angles were anatomically coupled, each joint was manually moved ...
Nunamaker DM, Butterweck DM, Black J.In vitro local fatigue testing of the third metacarpal bone from Thoroughbred and Standardbred racehorses was performed, using fully reversed cyclic bending. Strain number of cycle data were accumulated and indicated that significant difference did not exist between the 2 breeds. It was concluded that the marked difference in the incidence of fatigue failure in the third metacarpal bone (bucked shins, dorsal metacarpal disease) seen in Thoroughbreds and Standardbreds was not related to any differences between the 2 breeds in mechanical properties of the bone.
Bertone AL, Park RD, Turner AS.Radiographs of 23 foals (35 forelimbs) with carpal region angular limb deformities, which later were corrected by hemicircumferential transection of the periosteum and periosteal stripping, were evaluated as to geometric and morphologic abnormalities. Geometric evaluation included deviation angle and deviation pivot point. Morphologic abnormalities were categorized as: asymmetric width of the distal radial physis; asymmetric width of the distal radial epiphysis; carpal bone collapse or fracture; carpal bone hypoplasia; carpal bone displacement; and metacarpal bone displacement. Fifty-seven per...
Skelton JA, Hawkins JF, Rochat MC.A 13-year-old 128-kg miniature donkey gelding was evaluated for right forelimb lameness of 7 weeks' duration. Muscular atrophy of the infraspinatus and supraspinatus muscles over the right scapula with a palpable bony prominence over the point of the shoulder was evident. At the walk, the cranial phase of the stride was reduced with adduction of the distal aspect of the limb, dragging of the toe, and lameness (grade, 4/5). Lateral and craniocaudal radiographs of the right shoulder joint revealed lateral luxation of the humerus in relation to the scapula with bony proliferation and remodeling o...
Collier MA, Kallfelz FA, Rendano VT, Krook LP, Schryver HF.The use of capacitively coupled low-voltage signals for stimulation of osteogenesis has been reported in a variety of animal models. Electrically induced osteogenesis was investigated with a capacitively coupled electric field on a radius (distal-lateral orientation) osteotomy model, in conjunction with internal fixation and postoperative loading. Twelve adult horses of either sex were allotted to 2 groups of 6; 1 group was given electrical stimulation and the other served as controls. A low-voltage high-frequency capacitively coupled electrical signal was locally and continuously applied to t...
Jaworski K, Pankiewicz A, Chrószcz A, Poradowski D.The following article concerns the functional use of horse bones in the early Middle Ages (mainly in the period from the mid of the 10th to the 12th/13th century). The authors try to explain how such remains were used and how common it was. It is also discussed whether the special role of the horse in medieval societies somehow restricted its post-mortem usage, or perhaps there was no difference between the skeletal remains of horses and other species in this regard. For this purpose, statistical calculations on the use of the bones of various mammals were made. Only the remains of the species...
Tischner M.In the present study the growth and development of three pairs of matching gender foals from birth to maturity were compared. One Polish Pony embryo of each pair was transferred from a donor mare (mass 387-400 kg) to a much larger heavy type recipient mare (mass 561-780 kg). The other embryo of each pair underwent normal gestation (control). The transferred and control horses were examined at 9 and 13 years of age, and X-ray pictures were taken of their front legs to measure the length of the bones. On the basis of the results of this study, it is concluded that the processes of growth and dev...
Thompson KN, Baker JP, Jackson SG.Thirty foals of mixed breeding, from two consecutive years, were used in two 120-d experiments to evaluate the effects of supplemental feeding (creep feed) on growth in nursing foals. At 10 d postpartum, foals were randomly assigned either to a creep-fed group (CF) or an unsupplemented group (NCF). Initial measurements of body weight (BW), height at the withers (WH), third metatarsal length (MtIII) and third metacarpal length (McIII) were made at 10 d of age and at 30-d intervals thereafter. Medial and lateral cortical peak values for radiographic bone density, cortical width and cortical area...
Spoormakers TJ, Heim C, Vermunt L, Fürst A, Rovel T.To describe clinical and imaging features and surgical treatment of equine mandibular aneurysmal bone cysts (ABCs) with β-tricalcium phosphate (TCP). Methods: 3 horses (cases 1, 2, and 3) and 1 pony (case 4) with histologically confirmed ABC. Methods: All cases had mandibular swelling with intact adjacent skin. Cases 1 to 3 had a body condition score of 3/5 and case 4 had 2/5 and showed quidding during mastication and, at oral examination, large interdental spaces and loose elements adjacent to the swelling. Radiography or CT was performed in all cases. In cases 1, 3, and 4, an expansile sept...
Carstanjen B, Lepage OM, Hars O, Langlois P, Duboeuf F, Amory H.The purpose of this longitudinal in-field study was to evaluate the influence of exercise, age, and gender on superficial cortical bone of the third metacarpal bone (MC III) in young Thoroughbreds by measuring speed of sound (SOS) values with an axial transmission technique (Omnisense, Sunlight Ltd, Israel). Both MC III of 75 racehorses, 2 to 4 years old, were monitored with SOS measurements in 5- to 7-week intervals during a 9- month physical exercise period. Medical data and training programs (slow gallop, canter, and high-speed work) of each horse were recorded. SOS measurements began befor...
