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Topic:Diagnostic Imaging
Diagnostic imaging in horses encompasses a range of techniques used to visualize the internal structures of the equine body for the purpose of diagnosis and treatment planning. These techniques include radiography, ultrasonography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), and nuclear scintigraphy. Each modality offers unique advantages in assessing different tissues and conditions, such as bone fractures, soft tissue injuries, and joint abnormalities. Radiography is commonly employed for evaluating bone structures, while ultrasonography is frequently used for soft tissue assessment. MRI and CT provide detailed cross-sectional images, facilitating the examination of complex anatomical regions. Nuclear scintigraphy can detect areas of increased bone activity, often used in lameness evaluations. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the applications, advancements, and comparative effectiveness of diagnostic imaging modalities in equine veterinary practice.
Artifact Induced by a Transponder During In Vivo Magnetic Resonance Imaging on Horse Brain. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is now widely used in equine veterinary practice. However, the mandatory European legislation regarding horse identification imposes the implantation of a transponder within the fatty tissue of the neck cervical ligament. While performing brain MRI for scientific purposes in ponies, we faced artifacts produced by such transponder and reported here this problem. Indeed, pony mares were anesthetized for 2 hours and placed, bedded on their back, in a 3T MRI scanner. A four-element flexible antenna positioned around the head was used. Three MRI sequences were perfo...
Evaluation of pulse co-oximetry to determine haemoglobin saturation with oxygen and haemoglobin concentration in anaesthetized horses: a retrospective study. This study compared the values of variables measured by pulse co-oximetry (Masimo Radical 7; Masimo Europe Limited, UK) with those measured by a co-oximeter-enabled blood gas analyser (Siemens Rapid-point 500; Siemens Healthcare Limited, UK) in anaesthetized horses. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: A total of 30 anaesthetized horses. Methods: In total, 47 heparinized arterial blood samples were collected for blood gas analysis to determine haemoglobin concentration (tHb, g L) and percentage of haemoglobin saturation with oxygen (SaO). Arterial haemoglobin saturation with oxygen was deter...
Comparative efficacy of two-dimensional mode and color Doppler sonography in predicting gender of the equine fetus. Ultrasonographic fetal sexing is of utmost economic importance for horse breeders. Relatively, a few studies have been conducted to determine fetal sex in mare using transrectal Doppler ultrasound. This study aimed to compare two sexing techniques, two-dimensional (2D) mode and color Doppler ultrasonography. Methods: The study was conducted on 39 mares under field conditions. Examinations were performed using the ultrasonic model device (Medison SonoAce Pico, South Korea), equipped with real-time 3-7 MHz convex multifrequency transducer. Fetal sex diagnosis was carried out in two periods of pr...
Enhanced ultrasonographic imaging of the equine distal limb using saline injection of the digital flexor tendon sheath: A cadaver study. Injuries to the structures within the digital flexor tendon sheath (DFTS) can lead to lameness with a variable degree of effusion in horses. In some cases, effusion is absent or minimal, and this may be related to the chronicity and type of injury, or veterinary interventions. The purpose of this study was to determine if saline injection into the DFTS would improve ultrasonographic and magnetic resonance imaging of the distal limb without introducing artifact. Nine normal equine cadaver forelimbs were collected. Non-weight-bearing ultrasonographic and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examinat...
Fluoroscopically guided neocanalization for treatment of nasolacrimal atresia in two horses. A yearling Thoroughbred stallion and an 8-year-old Saddlebred mare were evaluated for persistent mucoid ocular discharge. Results: Examination of both horses revealed copious yellow-tan mucoid ocular discharge with a negative Jones I test, absent nasal punctum, and unsuccessful anterograde nasolacrimal duct (NLD) irrigation. Clinical abnormalities were present on the right side only in one horse and bilaterally in the other. Computed tomography (CT) with contrast confirmed nasolacrimal duct atresia in both horses. Results: Under general anesthesia, the affected NLD was catheterized anterograde...
Evaluation of equine corneal disease using spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT). The purpose of this case series is to evaluate the use of spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT) imaging in equine corneal disease to demonstrate the feasibility, diagnostic effectiveness, and limitations of this imaging modality. Methods: Retrospective study: Handheld SD-OCT (Envisu, Bioptigen Inc, Morrisville, NC) was used for high-resolution imaging of horses with corneal disease presenting to the North Carolina State University Equine Ophthalmology Service from 2013 to 2018. Results: Fourteen horses were included in this study, including six horses with corneal ulceration, t...
Usefulness of caudomedial-craniolateral oblique radiographic views for the diagnosis of injury to the origin of the cranial cruciate ligament in two horses. CASE DESCRIPTION A 12-year-old mixed-breed mare (horse 1) and 6-year-old Friesian gelding (horse 2) were examined for chronic lameness associated with the stifle joint. CLINICAL FINDINGS Lameness examination revealed effusion of the right (horse 1) or left (horse 2) femoropatellar and medial femorotibial joints and grade 3/5 (horse 1) or 4/5 (horse 2) lameness. A diagnosis of cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) injury with associated mineralization and avulsion (horse 1) or mineralization alone (horse 2) was facilitated in both horses with a caudomedial-craniolateral oblique radiographic view obta...
Computed tomographic dimensions of the normal adult equine eye. There are limited data on whether the dimensions of the equine eye and its internal structures change with bodyweight in horses. The aim of this study was to identify whether the size of the equine eye and its individual structures varied in a predictable manner with bodyweight, and to examine the reliability of computed tomography (CT) scans in the measurement of the equine eye. Ninety horses which had undergone CT examination of the head for non-ocular disease were included. All measurements of the eye were performed twice on all eyes by the same operator to quantify intra-operator agreement...
Assessing the Effect of Packing the Sulcus on Image Quality in Equine Digital Radiography. The requirement to pack the sulcus of the equine foot as an aid to diagnostic interpretation before acquisition of dorsoproximal-palmarodistal oblique projections is debatable. The purpose of this study was to investigate the benefit of packing the sulcus in the assessment of normal anatomy. 23 cadaver limbs were radiographed in a podoblock (https://www.podoblock.com/products-page/podoblock/podoblock/) A non-packed image (NP) and a packed image (P) of the same foot were acquired. The image quality of P was graded against the reference NP by five observers, where -1=P was superior, 0=no differe...
Three-dimensional CT observation of position and movability of the scapula in the horse using carcasses of Falabella. The three-dimensionally real position and movement of the scapula in the lateral side of the ribcage could not be clarified in the horse, since the body size of the horse is too large to apply the CT scanning and image analysis methods. In this study, therefore, we examined the position and the movability of scapula using a carcass of the Falabella which is one of the smallest breeds of the horse. The whole skeletal system in thoracic part of the Falabella could be three-dimensionally observed by CT scanning method. The three-dimensional images show that the scapula cranially slides and the ve...
Low field magnetic resonance imaging of the equine distal interphalangeal joint: Comparison between weight-bearing and non-weight-bearing conditions. This descriptive study aimed to compare the magnetic resonance appearance of the distal interphalangeal joint articular cartilage between standing weight-bearing and non-weight-bearing conditions. Ten forefeet of live horses were scanned in a standing low-field magnetic resonance system (0.27 T). After euthanasia for reasons unrelated to the study, the non-weight-bearing isolated feet were scanned in a vertical positioning reproducing limb orientation in live horses. The same acquisition settings as during the weight-bearing examination were used. Thickness and cross-sectional area of the dist...
Two-dimensional echocardiographic measurements of the right coronary artery in healthy horses – a pilot study. Precise understanding of the dimensions of the vascular lumina is essential for accurate interpretation of cardiac vessels imaging. To the authors' best knowledge, this is the first study focusing on the ultrasound measurement of the right coronary artery (RCA) in the horse. The aim of this study was to determine both the ultrasonographic range of the normal diameter and lumen area of the RCA in horses and the influence of gender, age and level of training on the RCA dimensions. An additional aim of the study was to assess intra- and inter-observer repeatability of the collected measurements. ...
Association of catastrophic condylar fracture with bony changes of the third metacarpal bone identified by use of standing magnetic resonance imaging in forelimbs from cadavers of Thoroughbred racehorses in the United States. OBJECTIVE To compare bony changes of the third metacarpal bone (MC3) of Thoroughbred racehorse cadavers with (cases) or without (controls) catastrophic condylar fracture by use of standing MRI. SAMPLE 140 forelimbs from 26 case horses (both forelimbs) and 88 control horses (single forelimb). PROCEDURES Bone marrow lesions (BMLs), identified as a decrease in T1-weighted (T1W) signal and increases in T2*-weighted (T2*W) and short tau inversion recovery (STIR) signals, and dense bone volume percentage (DBVP), identified as decreases in T1W, T2*W, and STIR signals, in the distopalmar aspect of MC3...
Osteochondroma of the First Phalanx in Tbourida Horses. This study aimed at describing anatomo-histopathological and imaging features, using computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging on six forelimbs of Tbourida horses, that presented a particular bone exostosis on the dorsal and proximal part of the first phalanx, diagnosed by X-ray. Gross anatomy of the bone exostosis revealed an irregular surface with poly-lobulated tissue masses showing a cauliflower shape. The diameter/depth varied from 0.5 to 5.1 cm with a mean of 3.9 ± 0.9 cm. The capsule of the metacarpophalangeal joint was hypertrophic and showed many invaginations in the inner ...
Evaluation of standing low-field magnetic resonance imaging for diagnosis of advanced distal interphalangeal primary degenerative joint disease in horses: 12 cases (2010-2014). OBJECTIVE To report history, findings from clinical examinations and diagnostic imaging, treatment, and outcomes associated with distal interphalangeal primary degenerative joint disease (DIP-PDJD) and to evaluate diagnostic usefulness and limitations of standing low-field MRI, relative to radiography and ultrasonography, for the diagnosis of DIP-PDJD in horses. DESIGN Retrospective case series with nested evaluation study. ANIMALS 12 client-owned horses. PROCEDURES Medical records were reviewed, and data were collected regarding signalment, history, results of physical and diagnostic imaging ...
Outcome following computed tomographic imaging and subsequent surgical removal of keratomas in equids: 32 cases (2005-2016). OBJECTIVE To describe the use of CT in the diagnosis of and presurgical planning for equids with keratomas treated by hoof wall resection and determine postoperative complications and outcome. DESIGN Retrospective case series. ANIMALS 29 horses and 3 mules with keratomas treated by partial or complete hoof wall resection following CT imaging of the distal portion of the affected extremity from 2005 through 2016. PROCEDURES For each equid, physical examination and lameness evaluation were performed, followed by imaging of the distal portion of the affected extremity. A tentative diagnosis of ke...
Impact of a void in the equine medial femoral condyle on bone stresses and peak contact pressures in a finite element model. To predict bone and medial meniscal stresses and contact pressures in an equine stifle with a medial femoral condyle (MFC) intact or with a 2-cm subchondral bone void, under varying degrees of internal femoral rotation (IFR). Methods: Finite element model (FEM) of a cadaveric equine stifle loaded to 8000 N. Methods: The FEM was constructed from computed tomography (CT) of the right, extended stifle of a yearling. The CT image was segmented into relevant anatomic structures and meshed into 4-node tetrahedrons. Bone material properties were assigned according to Hounsfield units, soft tissue p...
Contrast enhanced magnetic resonance imaging of the foot in horses using intravenous versus regional intraarterial injection of gadolinium. The use of contrast enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for the detection of orthopedic pathologies in equine patients is poorly described. In few studies, enhanced MRI allowed to differentiate active lesions from chronic ones and to classify ambiguous lesions. The aim of this clinical prospective pilot study is to describe and compare the MRI lesions observed in horses with lameness localized to the foot using a single intravenous bolus dose of gadolinium contrast versus regional intraarterial bolus of contrast agent. Ten horses that underwent contrast enhanced MRI were included in the ...
Quantitative Evaluation of Equine Articular Cartilage Using Cationic Contrast-Enhanced Computed Tomography. To investigate the diffusion trajectory of a cationic contrast medium (CA4+) into equine articular cartilage, and to assess normal and degenerative equine articular cartilage using cationic contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CECT). In the first experiment (Exp1), equine osteochondral specimens were serially imaged with cationic CECT to establish the diffusion time constant and time to reach equilibrium in healthy articular cartilage. In a separate experiment (Exp2), articular cartilage defects were created on the femoral trochlea (defect joint) in a juvenile horse, while the opposite joint...
Bone marrow lesions of the distal condyles of the third metacarpal bone are common and not always related to lameness in sports and pleasure horses. The metacarpophalangeal joint is a common site of pain in horses. Little information is available about bone marrow lesions in the distal condyles of the third metacarpal bone in sports and pleasure horses. Aims of this prospective, retrospective, observational study were to evaluate the prevalence of bone marrow lesions in the distal condyles of the third metacarpal bone, to describe their anatomic distribution and to correlate lesions with the presence of lameness and the level and type of activity. All sports and pleasure horses undergoing standing low-field MRI of the front fetlock region ...
The prevalence of temporal bone fractures is high in horses with severe temporohyoid osteoarthropathy. Temporohyoid osteoarthropathy is a well-recognized cause of equine neurologic disease. Temporal bone fractures associated with temporohyoid osteoarthropathy have been recognized with CT, however, little information is available regarding these fractures. The aims of this retrospective analytical study were to assess the prevalence of these fractures and to describe the specific configurations and associated imaging and clinical features. Fracture of the temporal bone was identified with CT in 16 of 39 included horses. All fractures were unilateral, minimally displaced and extended through the ...
Diagnostic Approaches to Understanding Equine Limb Wounds. An accurate and timely diagnosis of the systemic and local tissue influences of a wound are essential to target successful treatment measures and reach the best result for an affected horse. A complete physical examination should be completed for any wounded horse and appropriate systemic therapies instituted. Visual and manipulative examinations aid in the complete understanding of wounded tissues. Imaging and invasive diagnostic techniques also have value in determining the extent of a wound. Considering what tissues are involved from an inside-out perspective can assist in developing a comp...
In vitro comparison of linear vs triangular screw configuration to stabilize complete uniarticular parasagittal fractures of the proximal phalanx in horses. To assess fracture gap reduction and stability of linear vs triangular 4.5-mm lag screw repair of experimental, uniarticular, and complete forelimb proximal phalanx (P1) fractures. Methods: Experimental. Methods: Fourteen equine cadaver limbs/horses. Methods: Simulated fractures were repaired with 2 lag screws under 4-Nm insertion torque (linear repair). Computed tomography (CT) imaging was performed with the leg unloaded and loaded to forces generated while walking. The fracture repair was revised to include 3 lag screws placed with the same insertion torque (triangular repair) prior to CT. T...
Thoracic processi spinosi findings agree among subjective, semiquantitative, and modified semiquantitative scintigraphic image evaluation methods and partially agree with clinical findings in horses with and without thoracolumbar pain. Impinging processi spinosi in the equine thoracic spine are a common cause of poor performance in the horse. A modified semiquantitative scintigraphic image analysis has been proposed for the evaluation of equine processi spinosi. This technique showed a high inter- and intraobserver agreement when compared to subjective and semiquantitative image analysis. The aim of this retrospective, method comparison study was to evaluate the agreement of the modified semiquantitative scintigraphic image assessment with previous methods of interpretation and to compare these scintigraphic evaluation techn...
Magnetic resonance and radiographic imaging of a case of bilateral bipartite navicular bones in a horse. We describe the radiographic and magnetic resonance imaging findings associated with a case of bilateral forelimb bipartite navicular disease in a 7-year-old Warmblood gelding used for eventing. In addition to the radiographically evident partitioned navicular bones, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) also detected other concurrent abnormalities occurring within the foot that have not been described before in other cases of navicular bone partition. MRI not only revealed soft tissue lesions of the podotrochlear apparatus, but also allowed for more detailed characterisation of the recently diagno...
Ultrasonography guidance for total splenectomy in donkeys. There are varieties of surgical approaches reported for equine splenectomy and all of them were dealing with the most reachable situation of splenic hilus and easy handling of the spleen. The aim of this work was to establish the normal ultrasound parameters of spleen in donkeys (normal echogenicity, hilus situation, topographic location and correlation with neighboring organs) as a guide to select the best approach for total splenectomy in donkeys. Splenic ultrasound was carried out on six normal donkeys before experimental total splenectomy in the standing position. The splenic topographic l...
Lentiviral-based reporter constructs for profiling chondrogenic activity in primary equine cell populations. Successful clinical translation of mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-based therapies for cartilage repair will likely require the implementation of standardised protocols and broadly applicable tools to facilitate the comparisons among cell types and chondroinduction methods. The present study investigated the utility of recombinant lentiviral reporter vectors as reliable tools for comparing chondrogenic potential among primary cell populations and distinguishing cellular-level variations of chondrogenic activity in widely used three-dimensional (3D) culture systems. Primary equine MSCs and chondroc...
18 F-sodium fluoride positron emission tomography of the racing Thoroughbred fetlock: Validation and comparison with other imaging modalities in nine horses. Early and accurate detection of stress remodelling in racehorses is of utmost importance to prevent catastrophic injuries. Current imaging techniques have limitations in assessing early changes predisposing to catastrophic breakdowns. Positron emission tomography (PET) using F-sodium fluoride ( F-NaF) is a sensitive method for the detection of early bone turnover and may improve early recognition of subtle injuries. Objective: To validate the clinical use of F-NaF PET in Thoroughbred racehorses, to assess the value of PET in the detection of bone lesions and to compare PET results with findi...
