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Topic:Diagnostic Technique
Diagnostic techniques in equine medicine encompass a range of procedures and tools used to identify diseases, injuries, or other health conditions in horses. These techniques include imaging methods such as radiography, ultrasonography, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), as well as laboratory tests like blood work and tissue biopsies. Each diagnostic method provides specific information that can aid in the assessment and management of equine health issues. Radiography is commonly used for evaluating bone structures, while ultrasonography is useful for soft tissue examination. MRI offers detailed images of both soft and hard tissues, though its use is limited by cost and availability. Laboratory tests can detect biochemical and hematological changes indicative of disease. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the development, application, and efficacy of various diagnostic techniques in equine veterinary practice.
Age-dependent dynamics of Theileria equi and Babesia caballi infections in southwest Mongolia based on IFAT and/or PCR prevalence data from domestic horses and ticks. Epidemiological factors of tick-borne equine piroplasmoses, caused by Theileria equi and Babesia caballi, were investigated using logistic regression (GLM) and general additive models (GAM) based on the prevalences determined in 510 domestic horses and in ticks in S.W. Mongolia by indirect immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT) and/or multiplex PCR. Prevalences of T. equi and B. caballi in horses were 66.5% (95% CI: 62.1-70.7) and 19.1% (15.6-22.9), respectively by PCR and 78.8% (74.9-82.3) and 65.7% (61.3-69.9) by IFAT. Of 166 ticks analysed from PCR- and IFAT-negative horses 1 was PCR posit...
Use of successive dynamic videoendoscopic evaluations to identify progression of recurrent laryngeal neuropathy in three horses. 3 racehorses were evaluated because of poor performance or abnormal noise originating from the upper portion of the respiratory tract. Results: During maximal exercise, initial dynamic videoendoscopy of the upper respiratory tract revealed complete arytenoid cartilage abduction in 2 horses and incomplete but adequate abduction of the left arytenoid cartilage in 1 horse. Subsequent exercising endoscopic evaluation revealed severe dynamic collapse of the left arytenoid cartilage and vocal fold in all 3 horses. Results: 2 horses were treated with prosthetic left laryngoplasty and raced successful...
Detection of viruses in nasal swab samples from horses with acute, febrile, respiratory disease using virus isolation, polymerase chain reaction and serology. To examine the association of viruses with acute febrile respiratory disease in horses. Design Nasal swab and serum samples were collected from 20 horses with acute febrile upper respiratory disease that was clinically assessed to have a viral origin. Methods: Each of the samples was inoculated onto equine fetal kidney, RK13 and Vero cell cultures, and viral nucleic acid was extracted for polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or reverse transcription PCR. PCR primers were designed to amplify nucleic acid from viruses known to cause or be associated with acute febrile respiratory disease in horses in...
Multiplex real-time PCR for the detection and differentiation of equid herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) and equid herpesvirus 4 (EHV-4). A multiplex real-time PCR was designed to detect and differentiate equid herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) and equid herpesvirus 4 (EHV-4). The PCR targets the glycoprotein B gene of EHV-1 and EHV-4. Primers and probes were specific to each equine herpesvirus type and can be used in monoplex or multiplex PCRs, allowing the differentiation of these two closely related members of the Alphaherpesvirinae. The two probes were minor-groove binding probes (MGB) labelled with 6-carboxy-fluorescein (FAM) and VIC for detection of EHV-1 and EHV-4, respectively. Ten EHV-1 isolates, six EHV-1 positive clinical samples...
A novel Salmonella genomic island 1 and rare integron types in Salmonella Typhimurium isolates from horses in The Netherlands. To investigate the genotypic resistance of integron-carrying Salmonella Typhimurium isolates from horses and their genetic relationship. Methods: Sixty-one Salmonella isolates were screened for the presence of class 1 integrons by PCR. The gene cassettes of integron-positive isolates were detected by PCR, restriction fragment length polymorphism typing, and sequencing. The potential for the transfer of resistance determinants was investigated by conjugation experiments. The presence of Salmonella genomic island 1 (SGI1) or its variants was studied by PCR and nucleotide sequencing. PFGE was use...
Transcutaneous ultrasonographic evaluation of gastric distension with fluid in horses. To develop a transcutaneous ultrasonography (TUS) method for measuring the location of the stomach during various levels of fluid distension and evaluate any correlation between gastric fluid distension and stomach position. Methods: 6 adult horses. Methods: Known volumes of water were administered in 2 trials. In trial 1, the stomach was evaluated prior to and after the administration of 2, 4, and 6 L of water. In trial 2, the stomach was evaluated after administration of 6, 8, 10, and 12 L of water. The TUS was performed at the 7th through 16th left intercostal spaces (ICSs). For each volume...
Ultrasound-assisted collection of cerebrospinal fluid from the lumbosacral space in equids. To describe ultrasonographic landmarks for use in collection of CSF from the lumbosacral region in equids. Methods: Prospective study. Methods: 37 equids (27 with neurologic disease and 10 with nonneurologic disease). Methods: Standing equids (n = 17) were sedated with detomidine hydrochloride (0.006 to 0.01 mg/kg [0.003 to 0.005 mg/lb], IV) followed by butorphanol tartrate (0.01 mg/kg, IV) and restrained with a nose twitch for collection of CSF. The CSF was collected from 20 laterally recumbent equids (10 sedated and 10 immediately after euthanasia). Anatomic landmarks were identified ultraso...
Comparison of noninvasive cardiac output measured by use of partial carbon dioxide rebreathing or the lithium dilution method in anesthetized foals. To compare cardiac output (CO) measured by use of the partial carbon dioxide rebreathing method (NICO) or lithium dilution method (LiDCO) in anesthetized foals. Methods: Data reported in 2 other studies for 18 neonatal foals that weighed 32 to 61 kg. Methods: Foals were anesthetized and instrumented to measure direct blood pressure, heart rate, arterial blood gases, end-tidal isoflurane and carbon dioxide concentrations, and CO. Various COs were achieved by administration of dobutamine, norepinephrine, vasopressin, phenylephrine, and isoflurane to allow comparisons between LiDCO and NICO metho...
Helicobacter equorum sp. nov., a urease-negative Helicobacter species isolated from horse faeces. Gram-negative, curved, motile bacteria (strains EqF1T and EqF2) were isolated from faecal samples from two clinically healthy horses. Both strains possessed a single, monopolar, sheathed flagellum and were urease-negative. The novel strains grew at 37 degrees C under microaerobic conditions and were positive for oxidase, catalase and alkaline phosphatase activities. The isolates reduced nitrate to nitrite, but gamma-glutamyl transpeptidase activity was not detected. The novel isolates did not grow at 42 degrees C or on media containing 1 % glycine. They were resistant to cephalotin and nalidix...
A case of blind vagina in a crossbred Lusitano mare. This report describes a case of blind vagina diagnosed during a pre-breeding evaluation of a 5-year-old crossbred Lusitano mare. This mare was mated twice during the previous breeding season but remained open. Clinical evaluation revealed the existence of follicles in the ovaries and an enlarged uterus. An ultrasound examination showed that a granular free-floating fluid distended the uterus. No connection was detected between the uterus and the vagina and a presumptive diagnosis of congenital vaginal obstruction was raised. On vaginal examination it was noticed that the vagina was short in de...
Theoretical MRI contrast model for exogenous T2 agents. The rational development of new generations of MRI contrast agents (CAs) requires a scheme for predicting contrast enhancement. Previous contrast predictions have been based largely on empirical results in specific systems. Here we present a general theoretical model for evaluating the minimum concentration of T2 CA required for satisfactory image contrast. This analytic contrast model is applicable to a wide range of T2-type agents and delivery scenarios, and requires only a few readily evaluated parameters. We demonstrated the model by predicting contrast produced by superparamagnetic ferumo...
Relationships between serum serotonin and serum lipid levels, and aggression in horses. Levels of serum serotonin and serum lipids--triglyceride, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein, high-density lipoprotein and very low-density lipoprotein, were determined in normal horses and horses diagnosed with aggression on the basis of a questionnaire survey. Blood serotonin levels in aggressive horses were found to be significantly lower than in non-aggressive horses (P < 0.01), but no association was found with respect to blood lipids.
Intraarterial contrast-enhanced computed tomography of the equine distal extremity. A technique for regional delivery of contrast medium to the foot of the horse to increase the diagnostic utility of computed tomography (CT) for the characterization of soft tissue structures within the hoof capsule was developed. An intraarterial catheter was placed under ultrasound guidance into the medial palmar artery at the level of the carpus to facilitate a steady-state infusion of iodinated contrast medium. Two 5 mm collimated contiguous acquisition CT scans were performed in 10 horses without lameness or radiographic evidence of distal sesamoid bone degeneration. CT examination was pe...
Scintigraphic evaluation of the proximal metacarpal and metatarsal regions of horses with proximal suspensory desmitis. The aim of the study was to characterize radiopharmaceutical uptake patterns in horses with clinical and ultrasonographic evidence of proximal suspensory desmitis. It was hypothesized that radiopharmaceutical uptake in the proximal palmar (plantar) aspect of the third metacarpal (metatarsal) bone would be greater in lame limbs of horses with proximal suspensory desmitis than in sound limbs and that there would be a positive correlation between the severity of ultrasonographic abnormalities and the degree of radiopharmaceutical uptake. Nuclear scintigraphic evaluation of the proximal metacarpal...
Endoscopic assessment and treatment of lesions of the deep digital flexor tendon in the navicular bursae of 20 lame horses. Clinical lesions of the deep digital flexor tendon and navicular bone are being reported with increasing frequency. However, the role of direct visualisation by navicular bursoscopy in the diagnosis and management of such injuries has not been explored. Objective: Navicular bursoscopy: 1) corroborates information obtained from other, noninvasive imaging modalities; 2) allows direct visualisation of lesions unidentified by other diagnostic modalities; 3) provides further information on morphology of lesions; and 4) permits minimally invasive surgical access to lesions. Methods: The case records...
Reliability of conformational measurements in the horse using a three-dimensional motion analysis system. The importance of a reliable method for conformation studies is generally acknowledged, but there are only limited data on the accuracy and precision of current assessment methods. Objective: To assess (1) the accuracy and repeatability of marker placement, (2) influence of stance of the horse on conformational parameters, (3) practicality of a computerised motion analysis system and (4) to compare the computerised motion analysis system to photographic systems of assessment. Methods: Twenty-eight reflective markers placed over anatomical landmarks were located in 3D using a computerised motio...
Ultrasound-guided coxofemoral arthrocentesis in horses. Coxofemoral joint pain is probably underestimated due to difficulties in identifying hip pain. The deep location of the joint and proximity of the sciatic nerve make arthrocentesis based on external landmarks a difficult and potentially risky procedure in mature horses. Objective: To describe an ultrasound-guided injection technique of the coxofemoral joint in standing horses and to evaluate its accuracy and potential difficulties/complications. Methods: Nine mature horses had both pelvic areas prepared for sterile ultrasound examination (3.5 MHz curvilinear probe). Coxofemoral joints were loc...
Innervation and nerve injections of the lumbar spine of the horse: a cadaveric study. The distal limb innervation of the horse has been studied extensively to allow use of local anaesthetic techniques to detect the origin of pain in lameness. However, the innervation of the lumbar spine has so far been poorly described and a more precise description may assist clinicians to localise back pain in the horse. Objective: To gain better knowledge of the innervation of the lumbar spine and identify salient anatomical features that might be used for diagnostic and therapeutic ultrasound guided injections. Methods: The spines of 8 mature horses were dissected. Branches of the dorsal ra...
Standardization and validation of an agar gel immunodiffusion test for the diagnosis of equine infectious anemia using a recombinant p26 antigen. We developed and validated an agar gel immunodiffusion test (AGID) test for the diagnosis of equine infectious anemia (EIA) using as antigen the p26 protein of equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) produced in the Escherichia coli expression system. The developed rp26-AGID test showed an excellent diagnostic relative sensitivity (100%) and specificity (100%) compared to a commercial AGID assay when 1855 field serum samples were analyzed. In addition, the rp26-AGID demonstrated to be a precise assay with excellent repeatability and reproducibility. In the analytical sensitivity trial, positive ...
Survey of the large-animal diplomates of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine regarding knowledge and clinical use of polymerase chain reaction: implications for veterinary education. A questionnaire was developed to document the knowledge base of large-animal diplomates of the American College of Veterinary Internal Medicine (ACVIM) regarding polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology and to identify the common use of this technology in equine practice. Ninety-three of the 278 mailed questionnaires were returned, for an overall response rate of 33.4%. Ninety respondents (99%) reported being familiar with the general principles of nucleic acid probe technology; however, only 52 (57%) knew the difference between conventional (traditional) and real-time (second-generation) PC...
Evaluation of a real-time polymerase chain reaction assay for rapid identification of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus directly from nasal swabs in horses. Screening for nasal colonization is an important aspect of many methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) control programs. Real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is an attractive alternative to standard culture techniques because of the considerably shorter turnaround time. An assay has been validated for diagnostic purposes in humans, however this methodology has not been evaluated in horses. The purpose of this study was to compare an RT-PCR assay for rapid identification of MRSA directly from nasal swabs in horses to standard culture techniques. Nasal swabs collected from 29...
An anatomic study of the calcaneal bursae in the horse. To establish an injection site for the gastrocnemius calcaneal bursa (GCB), to identify communication patterns between the calcaneal bursae, to estimate the proximal and distal extents of the intertendinous calcaneal bursa (ICB) and to identify variations from previous anatomic descriptions. Methods: Descriptive anatomic study. Methods: Cadaveric equine hindlimbs (n=18) from 9 adult horses. Methods: Communication between the ICB and GCB was determined in 18 cadaveric hindlimbs by injection of a latex mixture, followed by examination of sequential sagittal sections and documentation of the dist...
Comparative evaluation of the sensitivity of LAMP, PCR and in vitro culture methods for the diagnosis of equine piroplasmosis. The sensitivity of LAMP, PCR and in vitro culture methods for the detection of Theileria equi and Babesia caballi was evaluated using tenfold serially diluted culture parasites. On day 1 post-culture, both T. equi and B. caballi parasites could only be observed at 1% parasite dilution from the in vitro culture method, whereas LAMP could detect up to 1 x 10(-3)% of both T. equi and B. caballi parasite dilutions, whilst PCR could detect 1 x 10(-3)% T. equi and 1 x 10(-1)% B. caballi parasite dilutions. On day 7 post-culture, the detection limit for T. equi and B. caballi in the in vitro culture ...
Gait characterisation and classification in horses. Although a large number of foot-fall sequences are possible in quadrupeds, few sequences are routinely used. The aim of this paper is to characterise, by foot-fall pattern, the gaits used by horses and develop a novel technique to classify symmetric and asymmetric gaits using one common criterion. To achieve this speed and relative foot-fall, timings of all four limbs of eight Icelandic horses were measured using accelerometers. Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) was performed to find criteria that are optimal for discriminating between the different gaits. This also allowed us to evaluate whe...
Urinary excretion of 5(10)-estrene-3beta,17alpha-diol and estrone by the female horse: complementary indicators of early pregnancy screened with regard to a putative anabolic doping practice. Rules of horse racing stipulate that pregnant mares may compete under definite conditions of date, because early pregnant status may be misused for the sake of enhancing physical performance by putative anabolic steroid action. Screening for pregnancy is generally performed by plasma equine gonadotrophin (eCG) immunoassay, which covers the period between Days 40 and 120. In common screening for urinary anabolic steroids performed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, inclusion of two complementary criteria, i.e. the evaluation of total conjugates of 5(10)-estrene-3beta,17alpha-diol (EED) an...
Comparison of cytologic and histologic evaluations of the conjunctiva in the normal equine eye. To describe the cells observed in conjunctival brush cytology (CBC) from normal horses and compare these findings with conjunctival structural histology so as to understand which cells are recovered from CBC. Methods: This study was divided into three parts. (1) Conjunctival brush smears were collected from 20 healthy horses on both eyes and a differential count on 300 cells was carried out on May Grünwald-Giemsa (MGG) smears. (2) A similar protocol was used for whole eyes from five horses obtained rapidly after death from a slaughterhouse. The eyes were then assessed for conjunctival histolo...
Evaluation of fecal samples from mares as a source of Rhodococcus equi for their foals by use of quantitative bacteriologic culture and colony immunoblot analyses. To determine whether mares are a clinically important source of Rhodococcus equi for their foals. Methods: 171 mares and 171 foals from a farm in Kentucky (evaluated during 2004 and 2005). Methods: At 4 time points (2 before and 2 after parturition), the total concentration of R equi and concentration of virulent R equi were determined in fecal specimens from mares by use of quantitative bacteriologic culture and a colony immunoblot technique, respectively. These concentrations for mares of foals that developed R equi-associated pneumonia and for mares with unaffected foals were compared. Data...
Evaluation of equine papillomas, aural plaques, and sarcoids for the presence of Equine papillomavirus DNA and Papillomavirus antigen. Immunohistochemical (IHC) testing and electron microscopy have implicated Papillomavirus (PV) as the etiologic agent for equine papillomas and aural plaques, but Equine papillomavirus (EPV) DNA has yet to be demonstrated in these lesions by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The purpose of this study was to evaluate formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissues from naturally occurring cases of equine papillomas, aural plaques, and sarcoids for the presence of EPV DNA by means of PCR and for the presence of PV antigen by means of IHC testing. We used EPV-specific primers that amplified a region of 3...
Investigation of a novel, heritable bleeding diathesis of Thoroughbred horses and development of a screening assay. Bleeding in racing horses associated with exercise appears to be multifactorial, and clinical investigation into severe cases rarely occurs. Previously, we reported a severe bleeding diathesis in a Thoroughbred mare. Herein, we describe the cellular physiology of this defect, provide a diagnostic tool for identifying it, and demonstrate that the dysfunction is heritable. Objective: The subject has a heritable defect in platelet secretion that reduces thrombin generation in the absence of additional plasma factors and delays the onset of thrombin production even in the presence of these factors...
