The study of diseases in horses encompasses a wide range of conditions affecting equine health, including infectious diseases, metabolic disorders, and genetic abnormalities. These diseases can impact various systems within the horse, such as respiratory, gastrointestinal, and musculoskeletal systems, and can lead to significant health challenges. Research in this area focuses on understanding the pathophysiology, diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of equine diseases. Common diseases studied include equine influenza, equine herpesvirus, and laminitis. This page provides access to peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the etiology, clinical presentation, and management strategies of diseases in horses, contributing to the advancement of equine veterinary medicine.
Medina-Torres CE, Underwood C, Pollitt CC, Castro-Olivera EM, Hodson MP, Richardson DW, van Eps AW.Failure of lamellar energy metabolism, with or without ischaemia, may be important in the pathophysiology of sepsis-associated laminitis. Objective: To examine lamellar perfusion and energy balance during laminitis development in the oligofructose model using tissue microdialysis. Methods: In vivo experiment. Methods: Six Standardbred horses underwent laminitis induction using the oligofructose model (OFT group) and 6 horses were untreated controls (CON group). Microdialysis probes were placed in the lamellar tissue of one forelimb (all horses) as well as the skin dermis of the tail in OFT hor...
Hemberg E, Einarsson S, Kútvölgyi G, Lundeheim N, Bagge E, Båverud V, Jones B, Morrell JM.This study investigated the relationship of the health of the newborn foal and (1) number of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNLs) in the amniotic fluid, (2) bacteria present in the amniotic fluid and the venous umbilical blood, and (3) bacteria present in the uterus of the newly foaled mare. A further aim was to investigate relationships between the bacteriologic findings in the amniotic fluid, umbilical blood, and uterus postpartum. Samples were taken from 50 Standardbred trotter foaling mares from a well-managed stud in Sweden. Parturition was spontaneous in all cases. Length of pregnancy, p...
Drbalova J, Musilova P, Kubickova S, Sebestova H, Vahala J, Rubes J.The T cell receptor (TCR) genes (TRA, TRB, TRD and TRG) reside in 3 different chromosomal regions. During the maturation of T lymphocytes, the TCR genes are rearranged by site-specific recombination, a process that also predisposes T cells to aberrant rearrangements. Illegitimate recombination between the TCR genes occurs at a low level in healthy individuals, but this frequency may correlate with the risk of lymphoma. The aim of this work was to investigate interlocus recombination in equids. Illegitimate rearrangements were studied in peripheral blood lymphocytes by FISH with painting and BA...
McLean R, Rash NL, Robinson C, Waller AS, Paillot R.Streptococcus equi subspecies equi (S. equi) is the causative agent of strangles, a highly contagious upper respiratory disease of equids. Streptococcus equi produces superantigens (sAgs), which are thought to contribute to strangles pathogenicity through non-specific T-cell activation and pro-inflammatory response. Streptococcus equi infection induces abscesses in the lymph nodes of the head and neck. In some individuals, some abscess material remains into the guttural pouch and inspissates over time to form chondroids which can harbour live S. equi. The aim of this study was to determine...
De Lange V, Chiers K, Lefère L, Cools M, Ververs C, Govaere J.Two unilateral cryptorchid stallions were referred to the clinic because of chronic debilitating condition with emaciation. Rectal examination, and ultrasound and gross examination revealed in both animals an abdominal mass, caudally of the kidney, and multiple nodules spread over the abdomen. Histologic analysis revealed an intra-abdominal malignant seminoma with intraperitoneal and renal metastasis. Interestingly, a seminoma was also present in the descended testis of the draught horse.
Gilday RA, Wojnarowicz C, Tryon KA, Lohmann KL.A Canadian warmblood foal treated for septic polyarthritis was diagnosed with bilateral congenital renal dysplasia, hydronephrosis, and hydroureter at 2 weeks of age based on abdominal ultrasound and postmortem examination. Intermittent abdominal pain throughout the course of treatment was attributed to hydronephrosis and hydroureter. Un poulain Warmblood canadien traité pour une polyarthrite septique a été diagnostiqué avec de la dysplasie rénale congénitale bilatérale, de l’hydronéphrose et de l’urétérohydrose à l’âge de 2 semaines en se fondant sur une échographie abdomi...
Cappelli K, Brachelente C, Passamonti F, Flati A, Silvestrelli M, Capomaccio S.Epitheliogenesis imperfecta in horses was first recognized at the beginning of the 20th century when it was proposed that the disease could have a genetic cause and an autosomal recessive inheritance pattern. Electron microscopy studies confirmed that the lesions were characterized by a defect in the lamina propria and the disease was therefore reclassified as epidermolysis bullosa. Molecular studies targeted two mutations affecting genes involved in dermal-epidermal junction: an insertion in LAMC2 in Belgians and other draft breeds and one large deletion in LAMA3 in American Saddlebred. Metho...
Silva LG, Genteluci GL, Corrêa de Mattos M, Glatthardt T, Sá Figueiredo AM, Ferreira-Carvalho BT.Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis (SDSE) isolates are the most common group C streptococci in humans and reports of invasive infections associated with SDSE have been increasing. Molecular epidemiology studies are an important strategy to trace the emergence and spread of possible well-fit bacterial pathogens of humans and animals. In this work, we analysed the antimicrobial and clonal profiles of 115 SDSE infection and colonization isolates of human and equine origin. PFGE revealed the spread of two main clusters: clone A (57.4%) and clone A (26.1%). Remarkably, two isolates from ...
Qi M, Zhou H, Wang H, Wang R, Xiao L, Arrowood MJ, Li J, Zhang L.A total of 262 fecal specimens collected from grazing horses at five locations in Xinjiang, China were examined by PCR for Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis. The Cryptosporidium and G. duodenalis infection rates were 2.7% and 1.5%, respectively. Seven Cryptosporidium-positive specimens were found in foals (16.3%), and four G. duodenalis-positive specimens were found in mares (2.5%). Sequence analyses of 18S rRNA and gp60 genes revealed that seven animals were positive for the subtype VIaA15G4 of Cryptosporidium horse genotype. G. duodenalis assemblages A and B were identified by mole...
Alvarez I, Cipolini F, Wigdorovitz A, Trono K, Barrandeguy ME.The most used and reliable indicator of Equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) infection is the detection of its specific antibodies in horse serum. In the present study, the performance of two commercial ELISA tests for the detection of EIAV antibodies as well as the potential advantages of their use as an EIAV infection screening tool were evaluated in 302 horse serum samples. Both ELISA assays showed 100% diagnostic sensitivity, and 92.3-94.3% diagnostic specificity. Discordant results were analyzed by immunoblot. The results showed that both ELISA tests are very efficient at detecting EIAV ...
Wagnerová P, Sak B, McEvoy J, Rost M, Matysiak AP, Ježková J, Kváč M.Faecal samples were collected from 352 horses on 23 farms operating under six different management systems in the Czech Republic and Poland during 2011 and 2012. Farms were selected without previous knowledge of parasitological status. All faecal samples were screened for Cryptosporidium spp. presence using microscopy, following aniline-carbol-methyl violet staining and PCR analysis of the small-subunit (SSU) rRNA and the 60-kDa glycoprotein (gp60) genes. Cryptosporidium muris-positive samples were additionally genotyped at four minisatellite markers: MS1 (encoding a hypothetical protein), MS2...
Kuhar U, Malovrh T.The equine infectious anaemia virus (EIAV), which belongs to the Retroviridae family, infects equids almost worldwide. Every year, sporadic EIAV cases are detected in Slovenia. Objective: To characterise the Slovenian EIAV strains in the p15 gag gene region phylogenetically in order to compare the Slovenian EIAV strains with EIAV strains from abroad, especially with the recently published European strains. Methods: Cross-sectional study using material derived from post mortem examination. Methods: In total, 29 EIAV serologically positive horses from 18 different farms were examined in this stu...
Pintore MD, Cantile C.A full-term male foal born in a farm holidays in Maremma (Tuscany, Italy) was euthanized shortly after birth due to the presence of several malformations. The rostral maxilla and the nasal septum were deviated to the right (wry nose), and a severe cervico-thoracic scoliosis and anus atresia were evident. Necropsy revealed ileum atresia and agenesis of the right kidney. The brain showed an incomplete separation of the hemispheres of the rostral third of the forebrain and the olfactory bulbs and tracts were absent (olfactory aplasia). A diagnosis of semilobar holoprosencephaly (HPE) was achieved...
Barton AJ, Prow NA, Hall RA, Kidd L, Bielefeldt-Ohmann H.This report summarises the findings from a case of naturally-occurring Murray Valley encephalitis in a 2-year-old filly presenting with acute onset of depression and weakness. Serum samples tested at the onset of clinical signs were negative for Hendra and Kunjin virus antibodies, but positive for Murray Valley encephalitis virus (MVEV) using IgM-capture ELISA (1 : 300 dilution). A virus neutralisation assay performed 4 weeks later confirmed a titre of 1 : 160. Sera collected in the weeks preceding neurological signs returned a negative titre for MVEV 2 weeks prior followed by a titre ...
Ortved K, Wagner B, Calcedo R, Wilson J, Schaefer D, Nixon A.Intraarticular (IA) administration of viral vectors expressing a therapeutic transgene is an attractive treatment modality for osteoarthritis (OA) as the joint can be treated as a contained unit. Humoral and cell-mediated immune responses in vivo can limit vector effectiveness. Transduction of articular tissues has been investigated; however, the immune response to IA vectors remains largely unknown. We hypothesized that IA rAAV2 and rAAV5 overexpressing insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) would result in long-term IGF-I formation but would also induce neutralizing antibodies (NAb) and anti-c...
Dembek KA, Hurcombe SD, Stewart AJ, Barr BS, MacGillivray KC, Kinee M, Elam J, Toribio RE.Critically ill foals often present to veterinary hospitals with impaired organ perfusion which can be demonstrated by increased blood L-lactate concentrations. As a compensatory mechanism to low blood pressure and electrolyte abnormalities, aldosterone and arginine vasopressin (AVP) are released to restore organ perfusion and function. Several studies have investigated the ability of blood L-lactate concentrations to predict severity of disease and outcome in critically ill human patients, adult horses and foals. However, information on the aldosterone and AVP response to hypoperfusion and its...
Baig B, Mehta T, Khalid N, Chhabra L.We present the case of a 40-year-old man with rapidly deteriorating acute meningoencephalitis, finally diagnosed as eastern equine encephalitis (EEE). The course and timing in this patient are quite characteristic. EEE is an arthropod borneviral illness in which the mosquito serves as the vector. It is amongst the most severe of the arbovirus encephalitides and has a high mortality and morbidity. In nonfatal cases, residual neurological deficits are often severe and permanent. North American lineage of EEE is mainly found in the northeast especially along the coastal areas. EEE is primarily fo...
Sarradell JE, Alvarez J, Biscia M, Zumarraga M, Wunschmann A, Armien AG, Perez AM.A 2-year-old dappled Percheron horse had a wasting condition that did not respond to antibiotic treatments and ultimately resulted in death. Thickening of the wall of the large colon and enlargement of the mesenteric lymph nodes were observed at postmortem examination, along with the presence of pinpoint whitish foci in the liver. Microscopic examination of affected tissues revealed diffuse chronic granulomatous enterocolitis, granulomatous mesenteric lymphadenitis, and multifocal granulomatous hepatitis. The DNA extracted from paraffin-embedded intestinal and lymph node samples was analyzed u...
Chollet A, Wespi B, Roosje P, Unger L, Venner M, Goepfert C, Monod M.We report a case of an outbreak of inflammatory dermatophytoses caused by Arthroderma vanbreuseghemii (formally Trichophyton mentagrophytes pro parte) that involved an infected horse, the owner and at least 20 students, staff and stablemen at a veterinary school in Bern (Switzerland) that presented highly inflammatory dermatitis of the body and the face. Transmission from human to human was also recorded as one patient was the partner of an infected person. Both the phenotypic characteristics and ITS sequence of the dermatophytes isolated from the horse and patients were identical, consistent ...
Martin G, Plowright R, Chen C, Kault D, Selleck P, Skerratt LF.Hendra virus (HeV) is lethal to humans and horses, and little is known about its epidemiology. Biosecurity restrictions impede advances, particularly on understanding pathways of transmission. Quantifying the environmental survival of HeV can be used for making decisions and to infer transmission pathways. We estimated HeV survival with a Weibull distribution and calculated parameters from data generated in laboratory experiments. HeV survival rates based on air temperatures 24 h after excretion ranged from 2 to 10 % in summer and from 12 to 33 % in winter. Simulated survival across the distri...
Okoko T, Blagova EV, Whittingham JL, Dover LG, Wilkinson AJ.Virulence and host range in Rhodococcus equi depends on the variable pathogenicity island of their virulence plasmids. Notable gene products are a family of small secreted virulence-associated proteins (Vaps) that are critical to intramacrophagic proliferation. Equine-adapted strains, which cause severe pyogranulomatous pneumonia in foals, produce a cell-associated VapA that is necessary for virulence, alongside five other secreted homologues. In the absence of biochemical insight, attention has turned to the structures of these proteins to develop a functional hypothesis. Recent studies have ...
Beasley A, Coleman G, Kotze AC.There have been several international reports of macrocyclic lactone (ML)-resistant Parascaris equorum over the past decade, but the resistance status of Australian P. equorum populations is largely unknown. A case of apparent reduced efficacy of ivermectin against P. equorum in Australia was investigated. Results: A faecal egg count reduction test carried out on a group of weanling foals in south-east Queensland showed the efficacy of ivermectin to be 65%. Conclusions: The case highlights the need to review current worm control strategies, especially for young horses.
McCue PM.Granulosa cell tumors of the ovary and SCC and melanoma of the external genitalia are the most common neoplasms in the mare. Tumors of the tubular reproductive tract and the mammary gland are rare.
Dixon PM, Barnett TP, Morgan RE, Reardon RJM. Computed tomographic (CT) imaging has allowed new anatomical studies and detailed clinical imaging of the complex, overlapping equine sinonasal structures. Despite the widespread use of CT, no study has specifically identified which compartments are most commonly affected with sinus disorders. CT has also shown the presence of intercurrent, ipsilateral nasal disorders, especially infection of the nasal conchal bullae (NCB) in many cases of sinus disease, but the frequency of intercurrent NCB infections has not been reported. To identify which sinus compartments are most commonly affected in ...
Estell K.Periocular neoplasia is common in horses. Treatment of the periocular skin and ocular adnexal structures can be technically challenging. Common neoplastic conditions, a treatment algorithm, surgical principles, and therapeutic modalities are reviewed. Regardless of the type of neoplasia found or the treatment that is applied, success is most likely when the neoplastic tumor is small.
Del Piero F, Summers BA, Cummings JF, Mandelli G, Blomme EA.Eleven gastrointestinal neoplasms from 10 aged horses and 1 pony were examined grossly, his tologically, immunohistochemically, and (in two cases) ultrastructurally. Clinical signs were associated with two neoplasms, and the other nine tumors were incidental findings at laparotomy or necropsy. The neoplasms were solitary (9/11) or multifocal (2/11), well demarcated, serosal or mural masses of stomach (1), jejunum (1), ileum (3), cecum (5), and/or colon (2). Microscopic examination revealed discrete spindle cells arranged in compact patterns with fascicles and whorls or cribriform pattern with ...
Labrecque O, Sylvestre D, Messier S.Cryptococcus albidus is a saprophytic, encapsulated yeast usually found in air, both outdoor and indoor, and sometimes on human skin. It is not usually considered to be a primary pathogen. Most cryptococcal infections of humans and animals are caused by Cryptococcus neoformans. Several cases of C. albidus infection have been reported in humans over the past 20 years. In the veterinary literature, 2 equine cases have been described: genital infection and mycotic keratitis. The present report is the first documented case of C. albidus systemic infection in a dog. Veterinarians and diagnosticians...
Spergser J, Aurich C, Aurich JE, Rosengarten R.Mycoplasma equigenitalium and M. subdolum have been implicated in genital disorders and infertility of horses. The reported cytopathic effects of M. equigenitalium observed in vitro underscore its potential pathogenic role in reproductive dysfunction in mares. This study was initiated to determine the prevalence of mycoplasmas in the genital tract of stallions in relationship to age, clinical signs, geographic location and semen quality. For this purpose the mycoplasma flora of the genital tract of 116 stallions of the Noric breed was determined by isolation and colony immunoblotting and by po...
Casey M.Equine dental disease has a high prevalence. Because of developmental, functional, and anatomic differences, limited inference can be made from brachydont dental pathology to that of equine cheek teeth. This article reviews the pathology of equine cheek teeth and their associated oral tissues, with specific information on periodontitis, pulpitis, maxillary infundibular changes, dental fractures, dental overgrowths, mucosal ulceration, and the regenerative capacity of equine teeth.
Stefanetti V, Marenzoni ML, Passamonti F, Cappelli K, Garcia-Etxebarria K, Coletti M, Capomaccio S.Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) are proviral phases of exogenous retroviruses that have co-evolved with vertebrate genomes for millions of years. Previous studies have identified the envelope (env) protein genes of retroviral origin preferentially expressed in the placenta which suggests a role in placentation based on their membrane fusogenic capacity and therefore they have been named syncytins. Until now, all the characterized syncytins have been associated with three invasive placentation types: the endotheliochorial (Carnivora), the synepitheliochorial (Ruminantia), and the hemochorial pla...
Williams SM, Fulton RM, Patterson JS, Reed WM.The diagnosis of eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) virus infection in avian species is relatively difficult when compared with other species. There are no characteristic histologic lesions in the avian brain that would serve to distinguish EEE from infections with, for example, Newcastle disease or highly pathogenic avian influenza virus. Traditionally, virus isolation (VI) and/or hemagglutination inhibition (HI) has been used for a definitive diagnosis of EEE in birds. Recently, we developed an immunohistochemistry (IHC) technique for confirmatory diagnosis of EEE infection in equine brain. T...
DeNotta SL.Urinary disease in the neonatal period can occur with primary congenital renal defects or as a secondary consequence of birth trauma, ischemic injury, nephrotoxic medications, or systemic illness. This article reviews the clinical evaluation of the urinary system in foals and highlights diagnostic and therapeutic features of the most commonly encountered urinary disorders of the equine neonatal patient.
Pusterla N, Conrad PA, Packham AE, Mapes SM, Finno CJ, Gardner IA, Barr BC, Ferraro GL, Wilson WD.Over a 2-yr study period, we investigated possible endogenous transplacental transmission of Neospora hughesi in 74 mare and foal pairs following the diagnosis of neuronal neosporosis in a weanling foal. Presuckle and postsuckle serum of each foal, serum and colostrum of each periparturient mare, and serum of each mare and foal pair, collected at 3-mo intervals thereafter, were tested for N. hughesi using an indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT). Furthermore, whole blood and colostrum samples and placentae were tested for the presence of N. hughesi by real-time PCR. The mares' seroprevalen...
Wijnberg ID, van der Ree M, van Someren P.Short-duration electroencephalography (EEG) recordings in horses are helpful in diagnosing intracranial disorders. Potentially, long-duration ambulatory EEG (AEEG) recordings in horses will enhance the chance of detecting abnormal brain activity independent of the presence of an insult. Objective: The objective of this study was to test if AEEG recordings in unsedated horses can be acquired and benefit diagnosing abnormal brain activity. Methods: Recordings were taken from 8 adult control horses and 10 patients suspected of intracranial abnormalities. Self-adhesive electrodes and the 'Porti-5'...
Lenard ZM, Lester NV, O'hara AJ, Hopper BJ, Lester GD.A 4-year-old Arab mare was diagnosed with disseminated cryptococcosis, including osteomyelitis of the proximal phalanx of the left hind limb, osteomyelitis with associated soft tissue granuloma of a rib and disseminated, large cryptococcal nodules in the lungs. The lesion in the dorsoproximal aspect of the proximal phalanx had a large area of cortical lysis with spiculated periosteal new bone and extensive soft tissue swelling. The affected rib had a pathological fracture. Cryptococcal osteomyelitis has not been previously reported in horses but should be considered as a differential diagnosis...
Kohler AK, Stone DM, Hines MT, Byrne BA, Alperin DC, Norton LK, Hines SA.Rhodococcus equi is an opportunistic pathogen in immunocompromised humans and an important primary pathogen in young horses. Although R. equi infection can produce life-threatening pyogranulomatous pneumonia, most foals develop a protective immune response that lasts throughout life. The antigen targets of this protective response are currently unknown; however, Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a closely related intracellular pathogen and provides a model system. Based on previous studies of M. tuberculosis protective antigens released into culture filtrate supernatant (CFS), a bacterial growth s...
Worku Y, Wondimagegn W, Aklilu N, Assefa Z, Gizachew A.A prospective study was conducted to describe clinical epidemiology of equine colic in the Society for Protection of Animal Abroad and Donkey Sanctuary Project Clinic, at Debre Zeit, Ethiopia, from November 2014 to April 2015. The objectives were to describe clinical epidemiology of equine colic, to characterize the main types of equine colic, and to determine the major risk factors associated with equine colic. The method which was used in the study was attending clinical case of equine and assessing physiological parameters, fecal egg count, abdominal sounds, and rectal examination as well a...
Stancampiano L, Usai F, Marigo A, Rinnovati R.Strongyle infections have been traditionally regarded as a possible cause of colic in horses. Aim of the study was the comparison of parasitological status between subjects with or without colic syndrome, with particular attention to small strongyle infections. Coprological analyses were performed on 86 horses: 43 with colic and 43 controls. Strongyle eggs were found in 34/86 horses (prevalence 39.5%), the mean number of strongyles eggs per gram of faeces (EPG) was 145.34 (standard deviation 398.28). All those 34 positive animals had small strongyles infections. Negative binomial multiple regr...
Dubey JP, Romand S, Thulliez P, Kwok OC, Shen SK, Gamble HR.Serum samples from 296 horses slaughtered for food in the United States were tested for antibodies to Neospora caninum by the Neospora-agglutination test (NAT). Antibodies were found in 69 (23.3%) horses with titers of 1:40 (19 horses), 1:80 (19 horses), 1:100 (3 horses), 1:200 (7 horses), 1:400 (4 horses), and 1:800 (17 horses). This is the first serologic survey for N. caninum antibodies in horses.
Hue ES, Richard EA, Fortier CI, Fortier GD, Paillot R, Raue R, Pronost SL.Equine herpesviruses (EHV) infect horses early during life and the persistence of these viruses through establishment of latency represents a real risk. A better understanding of the immune response to EHV infection is necessary to improve our methods of prevention and decrease the risk of transmission. The objectives of this study were to characterise the cytokine gene expression profile of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) after in vitro EHV-1, EHV-4, and EHV-2 infection and to determine the efficacy of inactivated (iPPVO) against these 3 viruses. PBMC were isolated from 3 horses an...
Herholz C, Füssel AE, Timoney P, Schwermer H, Bruckner L, Leadon D.The past 10-20 years have seen exponential growth in the volume of trade in horses and equine germplasm; and the extent of global horse movements has increased significantly in the last 4 years. In preparing for the transport of elite Olympic horses to Hong Kong in 2008, it will be very important to be as fully informed as possible of the disease situation in both the exporting and importing country, import and re-entry requirements, as well as having a vaccination strategy to protect against particular diseases. In this context the review describes the equine vector-borne disease situation in...
Giancola F, Rambaldi AM, Bianco F, Iusco S, Romagnoli N, Tagliavia C, Bombardi C, Clavenzani P, De Giorgio R, Chiocchetti R.Serotonin plays a pivotal role in regulating gut motility, visceral sensitivity, and fluid secretion via specific receptors. Among these receptors, 5-HT exerts a prominent control on gut motor function. Although the prokinetic effect exerted by 5-HT agonists is well known, the cellular sites of 5-HT expression remain poorly understood in large mammals, e.g., horses. In this study, we evaluated the distribution of 5-HT in the horse intestine and in foals with enteric aganglionosis, reminiscent of human Hirschsprung's disease. Methods: The intestine and spinal ganglia were obtained from three he...
Rikihisa Y, Johnson GC, Wang YZ, Reed SM, Fertel R, Cooke HJ.Ehrlichia risticii, an obligate intracellular bacterium in the family Rickettsiaceae, causes Potomac horse fever which is often associated with severe watery diarrhoea. The mechanism of the diarrhoea is unknown. The aim of this study was to determine whether sodium and chloride transport, morphology and cyclic adenosine 3', 5'-monophosphate (cyclic AMP) content of colonic mucosa was altered in E risticii-infected horses. Mucosa-submucosa sheets from the large and small colon of nine infected and seven to nine uninfected horses were set up in Ussing chambers for measurement of short-circuit cur...
