The study and analysis of "Domestic Animals" and horses examines the historical domestication, breeding, and management practices that have shaped the role of horses in human society. It also explores the anatomical, physiological, and behavioral characteristics that differentiate horses from other domestic species. Comparative studies often focus on aspects such as nutrition, health management, and the economic and cultural importance of horses relative to other domesticated animals. This page aggregates peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the various dimensions of equine domestication, including genetic studies, welfare considerations, and the impact of domestication on horse behavior and physiology.
Takizawa T, Ito T.Supposing two mathematical models, additive and multiplicative, the authors estimated the secular trends of annual morbidities (1949 approximately 1975) of twelve infectious diseases of domestic animals. For each diseases ten different trend curves were fitted. It was found that five regression equations, namely, those for bovine trichomoniasis, bovine tuberculosis, equine infectious anemia, pullorum disease in chickens, and foulbrood, gave the coefficient of determination of 97.9, 92.7, 91.0, 93.5, and 85.2%, respectively. Four of them were multiplicative, and the remaining one for equine inf...
Oehme FW.Animals are constantly exposed to a wide variety of foreign chemicals, many of which are potentially toxic and some of which result in the clinical poisonings. Pesticides are applied on or around animals for the control of insects and rodents. These chemicals may be placed in areas without regard for accessibility to household pets and domestic livestock. Insecticides, herbicides, and fungicides are routinely and haphazardly applied to animal and environmental surfaces alike with apparent disregard for differences in absorptive capability. Fortunately, newer herbicides and fungicides are relat...
Cook WR.Broken wind is a syndrome characterised by chronic bronchitis and alveolar emphysema. Clinical signs include nasal catarrh, persistent coughing, dyspnoea and poor exercise tolerance. In racehorses, lung haemorrhages may result in epistaxis. Broken wind is a disease of domestication ascribed to pollution of the stable air with fungal spores from hay and straw. Treatment and prevention are based on the provision of fresh air and, if housing is unavoidable, the adoption of a permanent regime of dust-free stable management. If an early diagnosis is made and appropriate treatment instituted, the pr...
Anwer MS, Engelking LR, Gronwall R, Klentz RD.Plasma bile acid concentration was determined in normal dogs,sheep, calves and ponies for three days before and six days after liver damage, induced by carbon tetrachloride. In all species, a significant increase in plasma bile acid concentration was associated with a concomitant significant increase in plasma sorbitol dehydrogenase and transferase activity. Plasma bilirubin also significantly increased in all animals except the dogs. Results suggested that plasma bile acid levels could be used to test liver function in domestic animals.
Balun J, Sutta J, Janda J.In this paper the haemocoagulative effect of the Vasolamin preparation was examined after intravenous application in cattle, sheep, and horses by means of tests. After a laboratory confirmation of the coagulative effect of the tested preparation we used it for the purpose of haemostasis in the clinical practice. After an administration of the preparation faster coagulation of the blood was observed in all examined animals. The setting in of the effect could be observed already after 5 minutes, the maximum effect was recorded between the 15th and 30th minutes after application, and the effect l...
Komárek J, Stros K, Sýkora I, Kynclová I, Jadrný L, Selinger P.By means of the Astrup equilibration method the values of the acid-base balance of the blood were determined in 104 cows, 99 horses, 100 pigs, 15 sheep, 20 goats, and in 101 dogs. The pH values of the blood, the partial pressure of CO2, the base excess, the base buffer, the standard bicarbonate, the actual bicarbonate, and the total CO2 were processed statistically and are presented in tables.
Simić V, Ilić A.The caecum in man as a part of the large colon (intestinum crassum) differs morphologically and topographically from the caecum of domestic mammals. The caecum in domestic mammals differs not only from the human caecum but also comparatively morphologically and topographically among the domestic mammals. The appendix vermiformis does not exist in domestic mammals, which represents the main difference between the human caecum and that of domestic mammals. There are certainly some differences in the physiological function of the caecum in man and the caecum in domestic mammals, which are carnivo...
Menassé I.After a brief reference to the importance of the non-parenteral route of vaccination of domestic animals in general, the author deals, for each animal species separately, with the most important vaccines utilised by this method of administration. On the basis of bibliographical data, he describes the history of this use, discusses the results of the application in the field and draws the relative conclusions.
Sebek Z, Wallner H, Sixl W, Kaaserer G, Valová M.Results are presented of a serological examination of 1,547 domestic animals (cattle, pig, sheep, horse, goat, dog, cat) from 9 Tyrolian districts (Austria), performed in order to disclose the incidence of leptospirosis. Completely significant titres were domonstrated by means of the MAL test in the serotypes icterohaemorrhagiae or copenhageni, sorex-jalna, bratislava, sejroe and saxkoebing. In addition, antibodies were confirmed against L. bataviae, L. pomona, L. tarassovi and L. bulgarica, but the titres were insignificant. Of the animals examined, 7.2% gave positive reactions in titres of 1...
Hall WC, Nielsen SW, McEntee K.Tumours of the male genital tract, excluding the testes, are relatively rare in the six major domestic animals. The most important tumours are prostate carcinoma and transmissible venereal tumour of the penis in dogs, fibropapilloma of the penis in bulls, squamous papilloma and squamous cell carcinoma in horses, and squamous papilloma in pigs. Four histological types of canine prostate carcinoma exist: alveolar papillary, acinar, organoid, and poorly differentiated. The biological behaviour of prostate carcinomas is similar to that in man, with frequent metastasis to the regional pelvic nodes,...
Heinze W, Ptak W.The metacrylate and latex corrosion techniques were used to establish that the vascular system of testes is based on one coherent principle in common domestic mammals. The cone-shaped Plexus pampiniformis consists of numerous venous rami, between 0.25 mm and 1.0 mm in thickness and forming a dense vascular network, which practically encase the spiral-shaped A. spermatica interna (cooling coil principle). The testicular veins and arteries in the Tunica albuginea constitute a somewhat voluminous layer of vessels for dissipation of heat, with rami branching off radially into the testicular parenc...
Chandley AC, Short RV, Allen WR.A detailed investigation of testicular meiosis in a mule, a hinny and a Przewalski horse/domestic horse hybrid were made. Abnormalities of pairing were observed in the mule and hinny in most germ cells at the pachytene stage of meiotic prophase, and spermatogenesis was alsmot totally arrested. A few mature spermatozoa were recovered from the ejaculate and epididymal flushings of the hinny. The Przewalski horse/domestic horse hybrid was fertile and showed normal spermatogenesis. Chromosome banding studies showed a close homology between the karyotypes of the Prezwalski horse (Equus przewalskii,...
The Journal of physiologySeptember 1, 1975
Volume 250, Issue 3 633-649 doi: 10.1113/jphysiol.1975.sp011074
Johnson KG.1. A technique for perfusion of skin has been used to investigate a possible neurochemical basis for the different patterns of sweating in domestic animals. Evaporative water loss was measured from excised trunk skin, ears or tails perfused with a nutrient Krebs solution, to which drugs were added as required. Perfused skin was observed to sweat in response to administration of sudorific drugs, and some features of the patterns of sweating were similar to those which could be induced by heating or by drugs in conscious animals. 2. In sheep and goat skin, injections of adrenaline, and to a less...
Moch RW, Ebner EE, Barsoum LS, Botros BA.Seven hundred and fifty-eight serum samples from domestic and wild animals in Ethiopia were tested for leptospiral antibodies by the microscopic agglutination test. The following percentages of seropositivity were obtained: horse (91.3 per cent), cow (70.7 per cent), pig (57.1 per cent), goat (47.3 per cent), sheep (43.4 per cent), camel (15.4 per cent), and dog (8.3 per cent). All 54 samples from birds and wild animals were seronegative. Most of the positive sera exhibited reaction to more than one serotype and antibodies to serotype butembo were predominant in sera of the majority of the exa...
Drăgănescu N, Iftimovici R, Girjabu E, Iacobescu V, Buşila A, Cvaşniuc D, Tudor G, Mănăstireanu M, Lăpuşneanu .The paper reports on serological results obtained by HAI tests against several alphaviruses - eastern equine encephalitis (EEE), western equine encephalitis (WEE), Chikungunya, Midlebourg, Semliki Forest, Sindbis, and Ilheus viruses - carried out in humans and some domestic animals in a region with an intensive circulation of migratory birds. It was possible to detect in human antibodies to EEE, WEE, and Sindbis viruses, but in very low proportions (1.8%, 0.4%, and 0.6%, respectively). Serological results obtained in animals were practically negative: antibodies to EEE virus were found only in...
Nanda BS, Getty R.The arteria intercarotica caudalis was observed to be present in the dog, horse and cat but was reticulated in the case of cattle, sheep, goat, and pig. The latter structure was a homologue of the former and represented an important intercarotid communication present in most of vertebrate.
Hooper PT.Severe spongy degeneration of the central nervous system (CNS) was seen in 11 cattle, 19 sheep, 4 pigs and 1 goat, associated with a variety of hepatic diseases, particularly those caused by hepatotoxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids. It was also seen in a milder form in 2 of 8 horses examined, 1 dog of 5 dogs examined, and in 1 rabbit only of a large number of laboratory animals examined. This paper reports results of experiments which confirmed initially that the CNS disease cold be caused by pyrrolizidine alkaloid intoxication. This was done by poisoning lambs with lasiocarpine. As the disease was...
Krivolutskiĭ DA, Nguyen TK, Fan TV.101 species of oribatid mites and 12 species of helminths--anoplocephalids, transmitted by these mites, were found out by Soviet-Vietnam studies in agroecosystems and tropical forests of northern and southern Vietnam. Helminths were recorded from graminivorous mammals as follows: horses, zebu, sheep, goats, buffaloes, deer, hares, elephant, 2 species of rates, 5 species of monkeys and 11 species of birds.
Kantanen J.Domestic animal production in the arctic region is often thought to be based exclusively on reindeer herding. There are, however, regions in Northern Europe and Siberia having a long tradition in rearing breeds of cattle and horse adapted to the northers conditions also. The development of these arctic animal breeds has been largely founded on old tradition rather than on the programs of breeding organizations. As a result of the selection carried out by nature and man, the domestic animals of arctic regions express characteristics that are metabolic, structural, associated with reproductive p...
Verrinder JM, Phillips CJC.With growing understanding of animals' capabilities, and public and organizational pressures to improve animal welfare, moral action by veterinarians and other relevant professionals to address animal issues is increasingly important. Little is known about how their action choices relate to their moral reasoning on animal ethics issues. A moral judgment measure, the VetDIT, with three animal and three non-animal scenarios, was used to investigate the action choices of 619 students in five animal- and two non-animal-related professional programs in one Australian university, and how these relat...
Harte T, Smith D, Moore J, Wells B.An article published in 1992 by Marion M. Pollin and I.R. Griffiths reviewed the topic of primary dysautonomias of the autonomic nervous system of unidentified origin in multiple domestic species, specifically cats, dogs and horses. Thirty-one years later, we appear no closer to identifying the causal agents of these strikingly similar diseases. This article reviews the similarities and differences in clinical presentation and pathology of dysautonomia in canids, felids, equids, leporids and other less frequently reported species.
Eydi J, Tukmechi A.The most serious problem in public health is salmonellosis, a common disease in horse. The aim of this study was to investigate the shedding of serotypes in healthy Caspian pony. We examined 143 pony's fecal samples collected from the north of Iran belonging to different ages and sexes. Samples were cultured, then identification of isolates were performed by common bacteriological methods and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The PCR was also used to explore the presence of and genes as virulence factors in the isolates and all were assigned to antibiotic susceptibility test via disc diffusi...
Sager M.The aim of this article is to emphasize the need for analgesic medication in animals in possibly painful situations, especially in the postoperative period. The two large groups of compounds used as analgesics--the opiates and the nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)--are described with special reference to their pharmacokinetics, side-effects and toxicity, their mechanism of action, their indications and contraindications. Recommended doses of the different drugs available are given for the dog, the cat, the horse, the swine and the small and large ruminants.
Ribeiro NG, Silva PD, de Lima Paz PJ, Arabe Filho MF, Listoni FP, Listoni EP, Panegossi LC, Ribeiro MG.Rhodococcus equi is an opportunistic soil-borne bacterium that is eliminated in feces of multi-host animals. An increase in multidrug-resistant R. equi isolates has been reported in humans and domestic animals, and it has been hypothesized that the treatment of R. equi in foals could increase the selective pressure on multidrug-resistant isolates and favor human infections by resistant isolates. We investigated the in vitro antimicrobial susceptibility/resistance of 41 R. equi strains from humans, which were isolated from patients with pulmonary signs, using 19 antimicrobials from 10 distinct ...
Tryland M.In December 1801, the first vaccination against smallpox in Norway took place. Vaccine material came from Denmark, England, Ireland, and other countries; it was also obtained from a few local cowpox cases. What mattered was the effect, not the origin. Several reports indicate that variola virus itself, the cause of smallpox, was also used for human vaccination after passages through cows and horses. A vaccine institute for production of vaccine in calves was established in Kristiania in 1891. Cowpox was once a rare disease in cattle, but a total of 70,985 bovine cases were reported between 188...
Lean NE, Franklin SH, Steel C, Woolford L, White J, Ahern BJ.Little is known about potential differences in the left recurrent laryngeal nerve (Lrln) and left cricoarytenoideus dorsalis (LCAD) muscle between domestic and feral horse populations. If a difference exists, feral horses may provide a useful control population for research related to recurrent laryngeal neuropathy (RLN) and increase our understanding of potential population pressures influencing the incidence RLN. The objective of this study was to compare the Lrln and LCAD of domestic and feral horses using histological and immunohistochemical techniques (IHC). Sixteen horses, domestic (n = ...
Boland CJ, Morris RS.A survey by means of a postal questionnaire was undertaken to investigate the patterns of work and the need for information of veterinary practitioners in New Zealand. Of the 670 eligible veterinarians, 399 practitioners (60 per cent) participated in the survey. Of these, 38 per cent were in large animal practice (less than 20 per cent of work devoted to cats and dogs) and 31 per cent were in small animal practice (more than 80 per cent of work with cats and dogs). The remaining 31 per cent were in mixed practice, with a workload intermediate between the other two groups. Across the entire sam...
Han H, Mao C, Chen N, Lan X, Chen H, Lei C, Dang R.Kit gene is a genetic determinant of horse white coat color which has been a highly valued trait in horses for at least 2,000 years. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in Kit are of importance due to their strong associations with melanoblast survival during embryonic development. In this study, a mutation analysis of all 21 Kit exons in 14 Chinese domestic horse breeds revealed six SNPs (g.91214T>G, g.143245T>G, g.164297C>T, g.170189C>T, g.171356C>G, and g.171471G>A), which located in 5'-UTR region, intron 6, exon 15, exon 20, intron 20, and exon 21 of the equine Kit gene, respectively. S...
Yeşilbağ K, Herzog S, Kennerman E, Tuncer P, Schmid S, Kaya G, Thiel HJ.Distribution of Borna disease virus (BDV) infection outside endemic areas has been studied in several countries. We examined serum samples for anti-BDV antibodies in purebred racing horses and other domestic animals in Turkey. In total serum samples of 437 animals including 282 horses, 50 sheep, 25 goats, 50 cattle, and 30 cats were tested by indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA). Anti-BDV antibodies were detected in 4.9% of horses, 12% of sheep, 4% of goats, 14% of cattle and 6.6% of cats. No statistical difference was observed between seroprevalence in Arabic and English purebred horses fr...
Manohar M, Thurmon JC, Tranquilli WJ, Shawley RV, Froelich P.A technique was developed for long-term catheterization of the coronary sinus in calves and ponies. A catheter with a 10 to 12 cm-long stiff segment was implanted via right lateral thoracotomy. Catheters were kept patent up to 10 weeks after the surgical procedure. At that time, location of the catheter tip was confirmed both by determining oxygen tension of the anaerobically sampled blood and by radiography. Base-line values of oxygen venous blood of non-anesthetized calves and ponies are reported.
Al-Wabel NA.Semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase (SSAO) activity was measured spectrophotometrically using benzylamine as a substrate, in the serum of healthy males and females of horses, camels, cattle, sheep and goats. The animals were born and raised in the same area, and the blood collection was made on the same day to avoid variations. Also the concentrations of protein and copper were measured in the same samples. There were no significant gender-related differences in SSAO activity between the tested animals regardless of species. Activities of SSAO in either male or female of horse were significa...
Mia AS, Koger HD.Serum concentrations of arginase, glutamic pyruvic transaminase (SGPT) and glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT) in dogs, cats, horses, cattle, sheep and pigs were determined before and after oral administration of CCl(4) at doses known to cause hepatic necrosis. Following CCl(4) administration, serum concentration of arginase and SGOT increased to a level of diagnostic significance in all animals. SGPT increased markedly in dogs and cats and marginally in 1 of 3 cattle and 2 of 3 pigs. In the surviving animals, the serum concentration of arginase returned to normal range much earlier than ...
Mizobe M, Kondo F, Toyoshima C, Kumamoto K, Terada T, Nasu H.A rapid method was developed to analyze delta-bilirubin (B delta), diconjugated bilirubin (DCB), monoconjugated bilirubin (MCB), and unconjugated bilirubin (Bu) by direct injection of sera using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with an internal-surface reversed-phase silica support (ISRP) column. Sharp bilirubin peaks were obtained using a simple mobile phase of acetonitrile: 0.5 M Tris-HCl buffer (20:80, v/v, pH 7.2). A variable-wavelength detector set at 450 nm, 0.01 absorbance unit full scale (AUFS), and a recorder set at 4 mm/min were used for detection. Peaks for B delta, DCB...
Nasu T, Sueishi A, Morimoto M.We used immunohistochemical techniques to analyze the localization and distribution of the catecholamine-synthesizing enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) and the neuropeptides methionine-endephalin (M-Enk), neuropeptide Y (NPY), vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), calretinin (Cal), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), substance P (SP), and galanin (Gal) in the stellate ganglia of two species of domestic animal (cattle and horses). NPY, VIP and Gal immunoreactive neurons (both cell body and nerve fiber) were observed in the stellate ganglia of both animals. M-Enk and CGRP immunoreactive ne...
Wawrzeńska M.In this paper, the effect of ascorbic acid on motoric activity of the intestines of rabbits, pigs, cows, sheep and horses has been determined, and a possible participation of the adrenogenic system in this mechanism has been shown. In experiments in vitro the motility of the duodeum, jejunum, caecum and colon in the animals mentioned abowe was recorded by the method of Magnus after administration of ascorbic acid. Diastolic reactions were observed in all animals, which were much greater in small intestines than in large ones. To elucidate the diastolic mechanism under the influence of ascorbic...
Weiser MG.Using a single channel electronic cell counter and attached particle size analyzer, leukocyte size distribution histograms were determined on canine, feline, bovine, and equine blood diluted with chloride-based diluent and treated with a conventional stromatolysin. Histograms were usually unimodal, but a few were bimodal. Mean values for mean lysed leukocyte particle volume were 49.2, 51.1, 55.4, and 65.0 fl for canine, feline, equine, and bovine blood, respectively. From inspection of histograms, a lower threshold of 30 fl referenced to latex spheres was interpreted to be appropriate for coun...
Frewein J, Buff E.In the anatomical literature there are inconsistencies in the description of the levatores costarum muscles in man and in the domestic animals, and their innervation either by the dorsal or the ventral branches of the thoracic nerves. Therefore we studied the form, structure and, with the aid of the dissecting microscope, the innervation of these muscles in 7 dogs, 8 cats, 5 horses and 12 pigs. In the dog, cat and horse, mm. levatores costarum are present from the second to the last rib. In the pig, these muscles are present from the second to the 15th rib, even in individuals with 16 pairs of...
Aggarwal N, Holmes MA.Despite the importance of IgG Fc receptors in the regulation of various immunological mechanisms, these receptors have not been well characterised in the domesticated animals including equines. This paper describes the production of two monoclonal antibodies (CVS 59 and CVS 61) that recognise equine IgG Fc receptors. Fusions were conducted using BALB/c mice hyperimmunised with equine peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Hybridoma supernatants were screened on the basis of their ability to inhibit the rosetting of equine antibody coated sheep erythrocytes with equine peripheral blood mononuclear...
Kostenko SA, Ermakova OV, Sushko SN, Fyedorova EV, Dzhus PP, Baschlykova LA, Kurylenko YF, Raskosha OV, Savin AO, Shaforost AS.We used cytogenetic analysis in the studies of the biological effects of a radiation factor of natural and artificial origin (under conditions ofthe 30-km exclusion zone ofthe Chernobyl experimental landfills in Ukraine, Belarus and Russia). The studies have been performed on various types of mammals: domestic animals--cows, pigs, horses and rodents--root voles, the Af mouse line, and yellow necked field mouse, bank voles. We found significant changes in the level of MN and chromosomal aberrations in the animals that were exposed to the conditions of chronic low-dose radiation for a long time ...
Herbach N, Nagel L, Zwick T, Hermanns W.Pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors of glucagon-producing cells are extremely rare in domestic animals. In this report, we describe for the first time, to our knowledge, the incidental finding of multiple glucagon-producing neuroendocrine tumors of the pancreas of a horse. The animal was euthanized due to severe local infection after tooth extraction. On postmortem examination, multiple white nodules of up to 4 cm in diameter were observed in the pancreas. Histologically, pancreatic nodules had the appearance of neuroendocrine neoplasms with positive immunoreactivity for glucagon, synaptophysin, ...
Chen J, Wang H, Li J, Liu S, Li B, Sun Y, Wang H, Manglai D.To date, the origins, domestication, and genetic structure of Chinese Mongolian horses (CMH) are poorly understood. Furthermore, there have been sparse reports on the genetic differences between CMH and Thoroughbred. In order to determine their genetic structure, understand their genetic relationships, and explore their domestication processes, we performed an extensive survey of creatine kinase (muscle isoenzyme; variations among six populations of indigenous CMH, cultivated Sanhe horses, and imported Thoroughbred. Twenty-three single-nucleotide polymorphisms were found among the 343 horse s...
Geerts S.In Belgium benzimidazole resistance has been reported in 28% of the sheep farms and 29 to 50% of the studs. In several member states of the European Union the prevalence of anthelmintic resistance (AR) is even higher than in Belgium, although AR is nearly absent in some countries of Southern Europe. AR is particularly widespread in certain nematodes of sheep, goats and horses in Europe, whereas only sporadic cases of AR have been reported in helminths of cattle. In Belgium only one case of AR has been described in goat and one in cattle; no surveys for AR have been carried out in pigs. The mai...
Gethmann D.In the early twentieth century, counting and speaking horses, like the famous Clever Hans or the "Horses of Elberfeld," became widely debated subjects in experimental psychology. The idea was to determine whether their learning success was only a fraud, or if it might open up a new chapter in "animal psychology" - or even belong to the realm of parapsychology and telepathy. When their tricks were discovered, the teachers of the animals were marked as charlatans. Both the attempts to detect charlatans and the efforts to avoid this accusation during the talking horse experiments proceeded using ...
Baba SS, Akinyele HA, Olaleye OD.The occurrence of antibodies against the African horse sickness virus was investigated in 246 domestic animals (horses, donkeys, camels, dogs) in various regions of Nigeria by means of the complement-fixing rate. 34% of the sera tested were positive: 75% in donkeys, 68% in horses, 19% in camels, and 9% in dogs. Among the horses, those of 6 to 15 years of age had higher than average prevalence rates than the other age groups. Stallions from the northern regions had higher prevalence rates than mares generally and stallions from other regions. These findings are important for the epidemiology of...
Sandusky GE, Wightman KA.Specific cell populations in the pituitary glands of the rat, cat, pig, and human being were positive for thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH). When reacted with prediluted rabbit anti-human TSH, LH, and FSH, antisera were not positive for the demonstration of these hormones in the horse, cow, or dog. Immunocytochemical staining was obtained in the horse, cow, and dog by the use of a primary antiserum against a specific beta-subunit of bovine TSH. The immunocytochemical staining of TSH, LH, FSH, adrenocorticotropic hormone, growth ...
Pavlinov IIa, Nanova OG, Spasskaia NN.Interrelations between some forms of group variation (FGVs) (age, sex, geographic, inter-species, differences among breeds) of 12 to 15 measurable skull traits are studied in 6 mammal species (pine marten, polar fox, Przewalskii horse, and 3 jird species) by means of dispersion analysis (model III, MANOVA). The above FGVs are considered as factors in the MANOVA, and skull traits are considered as dependent variables. To obtaine commeasurables estimates for the FGVs, each of them is assessed numerically as a portion of its dispersion in the entire morphological disparity defined for each charac...
