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Topic:Horses
"Horses" is a broad topic that encompasses various aspects of equine biology, behavior, and management. This category includes studies on the anatomy, physiology, and genetics of horses, as well as their behavior, nutrition, and care. Research in this area may also cover the historical and cultural significance of horses, their roles in agriculture, sport, and therapy, and the challenges associated with their conservation and welfare. The page aggregates peer-reviewed research articles and scholarly studies that explore the multifaceted relationships between humans and horses, examining both scientific and socio-economic perspectives.
The effect of water height on stride frequency, stride length and heart rate during water treadmill exercise. Water treadmill exercise is often incorporated into rehabilitation programmes for horses yet little is known about the biomechanical and physiological responses to water walking. Objective: To establish whether stride frequency (SF) reached steady state as a result of 6 introductory water treadmill sessions and then to investigate the effect of increasing water height on SF, stride length (SL) and heart rate (HR). Methods: Nine horses with no previous experience of water treadmills completed 6 sessions of walking for between 15 and 30 min. Each horse was fitted with a leg mounted accelerometer...
Nutrient intake during an elite level three-day event competition is correlated to inflammatory markers and antioxidant status. Dietary intake and feeding management practices could affect the degree of physiological stress and subsequent performance of high level 3-day event horses. Objective: To assess whether a relationship exists between dietary intake levels of selected nutrients and the inflammatory and antioxidant status in horses competing in a high level 3-day event. Methods: Riders competing in a CCI2*/CCI3* 3-day event (n = 35) answered a nutritional management survey conducted by the investigators at the competition. Actual and recommended intakes of vitamin E, potassium (K), calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P) an...
Effects of short-term training on thermoregulatory and sweat responses during exercise in hot conditions. There is evidence that extensive training in cool conditions results in improvements to heat dissipation that contribute to successful acclimatisation. In horses, the effects of a less extensive training regimen have not been determined. Objective: This study investigated whether 10 consecutive days of moderate intensity treadmill training in cool conditions would improve thermoregulatory and sweating responses of horses to exercise in the heat. Methods: Six unfit Thoroughbred horses completed a standardised treadmill exercise test (SET) in hot, dry conditions (32-34 °C, 45-55% RH) before (SE...
The effect of sildenafil citrate administration on selected physiological parameters of exercising Thoroughbred horses. Sildenafil, a phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitor vasodilator, increases cGMP concentrations by inhibiting enzymatic degradation. Marketed to treat erectile dysfunction in men, it also reduces pulmonary arterial pressure (PAP). Because it reduces PAP, sildenafil may enhance performance and/or prevent exercise induced-pulmonary haemorrhage (EIPH). Objective: To determine if sildenafil citrate administration altered commonly measured indices of performance or reduced EIPH in exercised horses. Methods: Thirteen athletically conditioned Thoroughbred horses (2 mares and 11 geldings, age 3-12 years) were ...
Dietary energy source and physical conditioning affect insulin sensitivity and skeletal muscle glucose metabolism in horses. Starch rich (S) feeds reduce insulin sensitivity in untrained horses when compared to high fat (F) feeds, but insulin sensitivity is not affected when S or F are fed during exercise training. The effects of S vs. F on training-associated alterations in skeletal muscle glucose metabolism are unknown. Objective: To determine the effects of dietary energy source on training-associated changes in insulin sensitivity, skeletal muscle GLUT4 protein and hexokinase (HK) and glycogen synthase (GS) activities in horses. Methods: After a baseline period on an all forage diet (Phase 1), horses were adapte...
Muscle characteristics in young Norwegian-Swedish Coldblooded Trotters and associations with breeding index, body size and early training. The trotting speed of Norwegian-Swedish Coldblooded Trotters (NSCTs) is, although inferior to Standardbred speeds, gradually increasing. This development is mainly attributed to breeding progresses. Characteristics of the middle gluteal muscle have recently been described in a small number of these horses but the actual spread in muscle parameters within the population is unknown. Objective: To describe the characteristics of the middle gluteal muscle and their naturally occurring variability in young NSCT horses and investigate possible association with body size, individual breeding index an...
A preliminary modelling study on the equine cervical spine with inverse kinematics at walk. The motion of the atlanto-occipital, cervical vertebral and cervicothoracic joints play an important role in equestrian sports and they are also common sites for lesions limiting performance in horses. Objective: To calculate inverse kinematics based on cervical vertebral motion and to develop a model close to the measured neck movements. Methods: Measurements were recorded in 6 horses without neck pain. Reflective markers were placed on both cristae facialis, both sides of cervical vertebra 1, 3 and 6 on the withers and hooves. The neck model was reconstructed from CT scans of the osseus stru...
Velocity-dependent changes of time, force and spatial parameters in Warmblood horses walking and trotting on a treadmill. Gait analysis parameters are sensitive to alterations in velocity. For comparison of nonspeed-matched data, the velocity dependency needs to be known. Objective: To describe the changes in gait pattern and determine the relationships between stride duration, vertical impulse, contact time and peak vertical force within a range of walking and trotting speeds. Methods: Thirty-eight nonlame Warmblood horses were subjected to an incremental speed test. The spans of speed were adjusted individually to each horse and ranged from 1.1-2.1 m/s at walk and from 2.5-5.8 m/s at trot. Time, force and spati...
Effects of training on equine muscle fibres and monocarboxylate transporters in young Coldblooded Trotters. Muscular changes caused by training are breed-specific and studies on the Norwegian-Swedish Coldblooded Trotter (NSCT) are limited. Knowledge about lactate-transporters in muscle in this light draught breed used for harness racing is lacking. Objective: To identify muscular changes associated with training in young NSCTs and investigate muscular distribution of the monocarboxylate transporter 1 (MCT1) and its ancillary protein CD147, which facilitate lactate transport across membranes. Methods: Nine horses were followed from the start of their training period until the end of their 3-year-old ...
The effect of treadmill speed and gradient on equine hindlimb muscle activity. Locomotion requires successful negotiation of different terrains, but we currently know little of how the musculoskeletal system adapts to cope with positive and negative slopes. Objective: To compare the effects of treadmill speed and gradient on equine hindlimb muscle mean electromyographic (EMG) intensity. Methods: Surface EMG recorded the activity of gluteus medius (GM), biceps femoris (BF), vastus lateralis (VL), gastrocnemius lateralis (GL) and extensor digitorum longus (EDL) in 6 horses at walk (1.4-1.6 m/s) and trot (2.6-3 m/s) on 3 different treadmill gradients (0, 10% and -10%). Sign...
Effects of feed deprivation on Standardbred horses fed a forage-only diet and a 50:50 forage-oats diet. A higher forage allowance to athletic horses might be an alternative to increase health and the gut fluid reservoir. However, more forage might increase bodyweight (bwt) and could therefore be a limitation during competition. Objective: To investigate the effect of a forage-only diet (FD) compared to a 50:50 (dry matter basis) forage:oats diet (OD) on bwt, plasma protein concentration and some metabolic plasma parameters during 12 h of feed deprivation. Methods: Twelve adult Standardbred horses in training were used. The 2 diets were fed in 2 experimental periods of 3 weeks each in a crossover...
Tenosynovitis of the carpal sheath of the digital flexor tendons associated with tears of the radial head of the deep digital flexor: observations in 11 horses. Tears of the radial head of the deep digital flexor (DDF) have not previously been documented. Objective: To describe the presentation, clinical, ultrasonographic and tenoscopic features associated with tears of the radial head of the DDF and to report the results of treatment. Objective: Tears of the radial head of the DDF cause lameness and distension of the carpal sheath of the digital flexor tendons. Removal of disrupted tissue that is extruded into the sheath can result in clinical resolution and restoration of function. Methods: Case records and diagnostic images of horses in which teari...
Relationships between myonuclear domain size and fibre properties in the muscles of Thoroughbred horses. The myonuclear domain (MND) is the region of cytoplasm governed by a single myonucleus. Myonuclear domain size is an important factor for muscle fibre plasticity because each myonucleus has limitations in the capacity of protein synthesis. Previous studies have demonstrated that differences in MND size exist in different fibre types in several species, including horses. Objective: To understand the basic mechanism of muscle plasticity, the relationships between MND size, muscle fibre type population and metabolic properties of skeletal muscles throughout the whole body in Thoroughbred horses w...
The effect of ex vivo flexion and extension on intervertebral foramina dimensions in the equine cervical spine. In dressage, the head and neck position has become an issue of concern as certain extreme positions may imply a welfare risk for the horse. In man, extension and flexion of the cervical spine cause a decrease and increase in intervertebral foramina dimensions, respectively. However, in horses, the influence of flexion and extension on foramina dimensions and its possible interference with peripheral nerve functioning remains unknown. Objective: To determine the effect of ex vivo flexion and extension on intervertebral foramina dimensions in the equine cervical spine. Methods: Computed tomograp...
Evaluation of neuromuscular electrical stimulation on fibre characteristics and oxidative capacity in equine skeletal muscles. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) is used to increase or maintain muscle strength during rehabilitation. Human studies investigating different protocols show that some treatments induce changes in muscle characteristics. Despite the frequent use of NMES in horses, no studies have been published describing its efficacy. Objective: To investigate the effects of a NMES protocol on equine fibre types and areas, glycogen concentrations and enzyme activities. Methods: NMES was administrated to m. gluteus medius and m. longissimus dorsi, on one side of 6 healthy Standardbred horses. The con...
Effects of intravenous aminocaproic acid on exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage (EIPH). The antifibrinolytic, 6-aminohexanoic acid, also named aminocaproic acid (ACA), has been used empirically as a treatment for exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage (EIPH) on the unsubstantiated basis that transient coagulation dysfunction may contribute to its development. Objective: To assess the effect of ACA on bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) erythrocyte counts in horses performing treadmill exercise at an intensity greater than that needed to reach maximal oxygen consumption. Methods: Eight Thoroughbreds were exercised to fatigue 3 times on a 10% inclined treadmill at a speed for which...
Agreement between accelerometric symmetry scores and clinical lameness scores during experimentally induced transient distension of the metacarpophalangeal joint in horses. Equine lameness examination is based on subjective visual scoring of lameness. Instrumented objective methods for lameness examinations may be complicated to perform and the equipment is often stationary. Accelerometry has a potential clinical use; however, the reduction and interpretation of equine accelerometric data are not yet routine and the value of accelerometry in equine lameness examination is unclear. Objective: To use accelerometric data to calculate 2 different accelerometric symmetry scores and to evaluate the agreement of these with traditional lameness scores done by experienced...
Changes in arterial, mixed venous and intraerythrocytic ion concentrations during prolonged exercise. Prolonged equine exercise can cause hypochloraemic alkalosis and hypokalaemia secondary to the loss of hypertonic sweat. Movement of ions in and out of erythrocytes during exercise may help regulate acid-base balance and changes in plasma ion concentrations. The extent to which this happens during prolonged equine exercise has not been reported. Objective: To measure changes in blood gases and major plasma and intraerythrocytic (iRBC) ion concentrations of horses undergoing prolonged submaximal exercise. Methods: Six horses were trotted at ∼ 30% VO2max on a treadmill for 105 min. Arterial ((...
Activity of the equine rectus abdominis and oblique external abdominal muscles measured by surface EMG during walk and trot on the treadmill. The rectus abdominis (RA) and oblique external abdominal (OEA) muscles are both part of the construction of the equine trunk and thought to be essential for the function of the spine during locomotion. Although RA activity at trot has previously been investigated, the relationship between OEA and RA at walk and trot has not yet been described. Objective: To document abdominal muscle activities during walk and trot, and test the hypothesis that muscle activity at walk would be smaller than at trot. Methods: Six horses (8-20 years old, 450-700 kg) were used for surface electromyography (EMG) mea...
Oxidative stress and antioxidant status in intensely exercising horses administered nutraceutical extracts. Many nutraceuticals are used as equine supplements without their efficacy having been scientifically tested. Black tea, cranberries, orange peel and ginger are a few of those nutraceuticals that warrant further study. Objective: To test the effects of single doses of black tea, cranberry, orange peel and ginger extract on markers of oxidative stress and antioxidant status following exercise in horses. Methods: In Study 1, 9 mature, healthy but unfit Standardbred mares were administered 2 l of a control (water), orange peel extract (30 g extract) or decaffeinated black tea extract (28 g extract...
Prevalence of exercise-associated arrhythmias in normal performing dressage horses. Exercise-associated arrhythmias are important differentials when evaluating poor performance sport horses. However, most studies of arrhythmias have been conducted in racehorses and therefore there is a paucity of knowledge concerning the prevalence and significance of exercise-associated arrhythmias in riding horses. Objective: The objective of this study was to examine the prevalence of arrhythmias, particularly supraventricular premature complex (SVPCs) and ventricular premature complex (VPCs), associated with exercise in normal performing dressage horses. Methods: In total, 21 normal perfo...
Risk factors for exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage in Thoroughbred racehorses. Risk factors for occult exercise-induced pulmonary haemorrhage (EIPH) are poorly defined or quantified. Objective: To investigate the importance of putative risk factors for EIPH amongst Thoroughbred racehorses in Australia. Methods: Tracheobronchoscopy was used to determine EIPH status of 744 Thoroughbred racehorses after flat racing in Melbourne, Australia. Horses were identified for study before racing, and over 50% of horses racing during the study period were examined. Statistical analysis included use of bivariate and multivariate logistic regression analysis to account for simultaneous ...
A pilot study on objective quantification and anatomical modelling of in vivo head and neck positions commonly applied in training and competition of sport horses. Head and neck positions (HNP) in sport horses are under debate in the equine community, as they could interfere with equine welfare. HNPs have not been quantified objectively and no information is available on their head and neck loading. Objective: To quantify in vivo HNPs in sport horses and develop o a model to estimate loading on the cervical vertebrae in these positions. Methods: Videos were taken of 7 Warmbloods at walk on a straight line in 5 positions, representing all HNPs during Warmblood training and competition. Markers were glued at 5 anatomical landmarks. Two-dimensional angles a...
Elimination from elite endurance rides in nine countries: a preliminary study. Endurance is the fastest growing Féderation Équestre International (FEI) discipline and the large number of eliminations on veterinary grounds needs to be investigated. Objective: To document elimination rates and explore potential risk factors for elimination due to lameness or metabolic reasons in 9 countries representing 5 continents. Methods: Data for rides of ≥ 100 km ('elite endurance rides') in Australia, France, Italy, South Africa, Spain, United Arab Emirates (UAE), UK, Uruguay and USA were collected from the FEI website. Data were collected for all started horses on the country, ...
Assessment of glucose disposal with the hyperglycaemic clamp technique during low intensity exercise in Warmblood horses. The quantity of glucose disposal during exercise (walk and trot) compared to rest by use of the hyperglycaemic clamp technique has not been reported previously and has relevance to nutritional requirements. Objective: Exercise (walk and trot) significantly increases glucose disposal compared to rest. Methods: Seven healthy Dutch Warmblood mares, all in dioestrus, mean ± s.d. age 11.6 ± 2.4 years and weighing 569 ± 40 kg were fasted for 12 h prior to a hyperglycaemic clamp at rest (maintaining a steady state of the blood glucose concentration during 30 min), walk (10 min, 1.5 m/s), trot (20 ...
Exercise-induced increases in inflammatory cytokines in muscle and blood of horses. Studies have demonstrated increases in mRNA expression for inflammatory cytokines following exercise in horses and have suggested those markers of inflammation may play a role in delayed onset muscle soreness. However, measurement of mRNA expression in white blood cells is an indirect method. No studies to date have documented the cytokine response to exercise directly in muscle in horses. Objective: This study tested the hypothesis that exercise increases cytokine markers of inflammation in blood and muscle. Methods: Blood and muscle biopsies were obtained from 4 healthy, unfit Standardbred m...
Effect of head and neck position on outcome of quantitative neuromuscular diagnostic techniques in Warmblood riding horses directly following moderate exercise. There has been growing interest in training techniques with respect to the head and neck position (HNP) of the equine athlete. Little is known about the influence of HNP on neuromuscular transmission in neck muscles. Objective: To test the hypothesis that different HNPs have effect on single fibre (SF), quantitative electromyographic (QEMG) examination and muscle enzyme activity directly after moderate exercise. Methods: Seven Warmblood horses were studied using a standard exercise protocol in 5 HNPs: HNP1: unrestrained; HNP2: neck raised; bridge of nose around the vertical; HNP4: neck lowered...
Observations on development of natural infection and species composition of small strongyles in young equids in Kentucky. Early development and maturation of species of small strongyles have not been studied extensively. Most information is on the first appearance of strongyle eggs in feces of foals. However, species cannot be determined in this manner because of similarity of the morphological features of the eggs. To determine more definitive knowledge on development and species composition of natural infections of small strongyles, eight equid foals were necropsied and examined at various ages (31 to 92 days of age). The entire contents of the large intestine were examined, and all worms (6,671) recovered were...
Multiple congenital ocular anomalies in Icelandic horses. Multiple congenital ocular anomalies (MCOA) syndrome is a hereditary congenital eye defect that was first described in Silver colored Rocky Mountain horses. The mutation causing this disease is located within a defined chromosomal interval, which also contains the gene and mutation that is associated with the Silver coat color (PMEL17, exon 11). Horses that are homozygous for the disease-causing allele have multiple defects (MCOA-phenotype), whilst the heterozygous horses predominantly have cysts of the iris, ciliary body or retina (Cyst-phenotype). It has been argued that these ocular defects...
Implantation of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells demonstrates improved outcome in horses with overstrain injury of the superficial digital flexor tendon. Mesenchymal stem (progenitor; stromal) cell (MSC) therapy has gained popularity for the treatment of equine tendon injuries but without reports of long-term follow-up. Objective: To evaluate the safety and reinjury rate of racehorses after intralesional MSC injection in a large study of naturally occurring superficial digital flexor tendinopathy and to compare these data with those published for other treatments. Methods: Safety was assessed clinically, ultrasonographically, scintigraphically and histologically in a cohort of treated cases: 141 client-owned treated racehorses followed-up for a...
