Imaging techniques in horses encompass a range of diagnostic tools used to visualize the internal structures and systems of equine patients. These techniques assist in the diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment planning of various conditions affecting horses. Common imaging modalities include radiography (X-rays), ultrasonography, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and computed tomography (CT). Each technique offers unique advantages in terms of resolution, depth of penetration, and the type of tissues that can be examined. For instance, radiography is frequently used for assessing bone structures, while ultrasonography is often employed for soft tissue evaluation. MRI and CT provide detailed cross-sectional images, aiding in the assessment of complex anatomical regions. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the application, advancements, and comparative efficacy of imaging techniques in equine veterinary medicine.
Janczarek I, Kędzierski W, Tkaczyk E, Kaczmarek B, Łuszczyński J, Mucha K.This study aimed to assess the impact of various types of warm-up on the metacarpal and metatarsal surface temperature in jumping sport horses in comparison to leisure horses, which work usually less intensively. Six clinically healthy sport geldings, contestants in showjumping competitions, and six geldings used for leisure riding were included in the study. The experiment was conducted for four consecutive days, during which the horses were warmed up by walking and trotting for various durations. Images were taken with a FLUKE Ti9 thermal imager to determine the resting, post-effort, and rec...
Hartl B, Egerbacher M, Kneissl SM. Detailed radiological evaluation of the normal hyoid apparatus by computed tomography (CT) has not yet been conducted. Thus, it is unclear what type of junction connects the different parts of the equine hyoid apparatus. To describe the normal CT anatomy of the equine hyoid apparatus, and to determine the junction type that connects the different parts of the hyoid apparatus. Combination of retrospective study and prospective cadaver study. The medical records of horses that underwent head CT scans from 2009 to 2018 were retrieved. Inclusion criteria for the CT scans were visibility of at ...
Wagner FC, Reese S, Gerlach K, Böttcher P, Mülling CKW.Long-term cyclic tensile testing with equine palmar/plantar tendons have not yet been performed due to problems in fixing equine tendons securely and loading them cyclically. It is well established that the biomechanical response of tendons varies during cyclic loading over time. The aim of this study was to develop a clamping device that enables repetitive cyclic tensile testing of equine superficial digital flexor tendon for at least 60 loading cycles and for 5 min. Results: A novel cryo-clamp was developed and built. Healthy and collagenase-treated pony SDFTs were mounted in the custom-ma...
Wilson S, Spriet M, Mur PE, Anishchenko S, Beylin D, Katzman S, Galuppo L.Lesions of the deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) are a cause for foot lameness in horses. Positron emission tomography (PET) could provide valuable information regarding the metabolic activity of these lesions. The aims of this exploratory, prospective, methods comparison study were to assess the ability of fluorine-fluorodeoxyglucose ( F-FDG) PET to detect DDFT lesions and to compare the PET findings with CT and MRI findings. Eight horses with lameness due to pain localized to the front feet were included. Both front limbs of all horses were imaged with F-FDG PET, noncontrast CT, and arteri...
Deacon LJ, Reef VB, Leduc L, de Solis CN.This pictorial essay aims to display the image quality of pocket-sized ultrasound devices and hospital-based equipment to provide clinicians visual information about the potential uses of point-of-care ultrasonography (POCUS) in equine practice. Twenty-two paired images were obtained using traditional ultrasound equipment and pocket-sized ultrasound devices from patients evaluated at veterinary teaching hospitals. Images of many common ultrasound windows and miscellaneous sonographic abnormalities were obtained using pocket-sized ultrasound equipment.
Andersen PH, Broomé S, Rashid M, Lundblad J, Ask K, Li Z, Hernlund E, Rhodin M, Kjellström H.Automated recognition of human facial expressions of pain and emotions is to a certain degree a solved problem, using approaches based on computer vision and machine learning. However, the application of such methods to horses has proven difficult. Major barriers are the lack of sufficiently large, annotated databases for horses and difficulties in obtaining correct classifications of pain because horses are non-verbal. This review describes our work to overcome these barriers, using two different approaches. One involves the use of a manual, but relatively objective, classification system for...
Straticò P, Guerri G, Palozzo A, Di Francesco P, Vignoli M, Varasano V, Petrizzi L.Capsulitis leads to the release of inflammatory mediators in the joint, causing capsular fibrosis and osteoarthritis (OA). Strain elastosonography (SE) measures the elasticity of tissue by evaluating its strain in operator-dependent deformation. The aims of the study were to assess the feasibility, repeatability, and reproducibility of SE for imaging the distal attachment of the joint capsule (DJC) of metacarpophalangeal joints in sound horses (Group S) and in horses with metacarpophalangeal OA (Group P) and to evaluate differences in the elastosonographic patterns of these horses. After a who...
Wagner FC, Gerlach K, Geiger SM, Gittel C, Böttcher P, Mülling CKW.The superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) is the most frequently injured structure of the musculoskeletal system in sport horses and a common cause for early retirement. This project's aim was to visualize and measure the strain of the sound, injured, and healing SDFTs in a pony during walk and trot. For this purpose, biplanar high-speed fluoroscopic kinematography (FluoKin), as a high precision X-ray movement analysis tool, was used for the first time in vivo with equine tendons. The strain in the metacarpal region of the sound SDFT was 2.86% during walk and 6.78% during trot. When injured...
Raisis AL, Mosing M, Hosgood GL, Secombe CJ, Adler A, Waldmann AD.Electrical impedance tomography (EIT) provides clinically useful lung images; however, it would be an advantage to extract additional cardiovascular information from the data. The aim of this study was to evaluate if cardiac-related changes measured by EIT can be used to measure pulse rate (PR) under physiological as well as high and low blood pressure states in anaesthetised horses. Electrical impedance tomography data and PR from seven horses anaesthetised in dorsal recumbency were recorded over 1 min during mechanical ventilation and 1 min of apnoea. Data were collected at four measurement ...
van Zadelhoff C, Liuti T, Dixon PM, Reardon RJM.The performance of cone-beam CT (CBCT) systems compared to conventional helical multidetector CT (MDCT) imaging of the equine head is unknown. The aim of this prospective, method-comparison study was to compare the ability of CBCT and MDCT to detect abnormalities in equine cadaver heads. Eleven equine cadaver heads were scanned using a CBCT scanner and a 64-slice MDCT scanner. Consensus evaluations for CBCT and MDCT scans were performed by three observers. Identified abnormalities were grouped into subcategories with a focus on dental abnormalities. Kappa agreement values between detected abno...
Secombe C, Adler A, Hosgood G, Raisis A, Mosing M.Electrical impedance tomography (EIT) generates images of the lungs based on impedance change and was able to detect changes in airflow after histamine challenge in horses. Objective: To confirm that EIT can detect histamine-provoked changes in airflow and subsequent drug-induced bronchodilatation. Novel EIT flow variables were developed and examined for changes in airflow. Methods: Bronchoconstriction was induced using stepwise histamine bronchoprovocation in 17 healthy sedated horses. The EIT variables were recorded at baseline, after saline nebulization (control), at the histamine concentra...
Del Prete C, Freccero F, Lanci A, Hallowell GD, Bullone C, Castagnetti C, Pasolini MP.Ultrasonographic measurement of the vena cava and aorta (Ao) diameters and their ratios have been suggested to be a reliable way of quantifying hypovolemia. To evaluate the feasibility and reliability of an ultrasonographic technique for measurement of Ao and caudal vena cava (CVC) and derived ratios using three different acoustic windows in a population of healthy neonatal foals. Correlation between Ao and CVC measurements and ratios and foals' age or bodyweight were also investigated. In 14 healthy foals aged less than 7 days, the diameters of the Ao and of the CVC in long and short axis we...
MacKechnie-Guire R, Fisher M, Mathie H, Kuczynska K, Fairfax V, Fisher D, Pfau T.Thermography is a non-invasive method for measuring surface temperatures and may be a convenient way of identifying hypo/hyperthermic areas under a saddle that may be related to saddle pressures. A thermal camera quantified minimum/maximum/mean temperatures at specific locations (left/right) of the thoracic region at three-time points: (1) baseline; (2) post lunging; (3) post ridden exercise in eight non-lame sports horses ridden by the same rider. A Pliance (Novel) pressure mat determined the mean/peak saddle pressures (kPa) in the cranial and caudal regions. General linear mixed models with ...
Delgado OBD, Louro LF, Rocchigiani G, Verin R, Humphreys W, Senior M, Campagna I.To describe dye distribution and spinal nerve involvement after a simulated erector spinae plane (ESP) block performed on fresh equine cadavers. Methods: Experimental cadaver study. Methods: A group of 11 adult equine cadavers. Methods: The spinal region surrounding the sixteenth thoracic vertebra (Th16) of one cadaver was removed and underwent magnetic resonance imaging. In 10 adult equine cadavers [body weight, 549 ± 58 kg (mean ± standard deviation)], 0.2 mL kg of a 50:1 2% lidocaine/dye solution was injected bilaterally (n = 20 injections) into the fascial plane between the transverse p...
Glycogen in skeletal muscle is a major source of energy during exercise and an important determinant of endurance capacity, so that its measurement may provide a meaningful marker of athletes' preparation and a possible predictor of performance, both in humans and in equines. Gold standard of glycogen concentration measurement is the histochemical and biochemical analysis of biopsy-derived muscle tissue, an invasive and potentially injuring procedure. Recently, high-frequency ultrasound (US) technology is being exploited in human sports medicine to estimate muscle glycogen content. Therefore, ...
Secchi V, Masala G, Corda A, Corda F, Potop E, Barbero Fernandez A, Pinna Parpaglia ML, Sanna Passino E.Early diagnosis of tendon injuries and accurate long-term monitoring of the healing process are key for equine veterinarians that use conventional ultrasonography. The development of strain elastography could improve the management of clinical cases. The aim of the study was to assess the intraobserver repeatability and interobserver reproducibility of manual measurements of the colored areas of the tendons within elastograms and to standardize this manual modality by comparing the analysis of the images with ImageJ. Twenty elastograms of the injured superficial digital flexor tendons (SDFTs) ...
Osborn ML, Cornille JL, Blas-Machado U, Uhl EW.Navicular syndrome has been traditionally characterized by progressive lameness with chronic degeneration of the navicular bone. Advances in imaging techniques have revealed that its associated soft tissue structures are also affected. This distribution of lesions is explained by conceptualizing the equine navicular apparatus as an enthesis organ that facilitates the dissemination of mechanical stress throughout the tissues of the foot. The navicular apparatus has the same structural adaptations to mechanical stress as the human Achilles tendon complex. These adaptations efficiently dissipate ...
Keenan AV, Townsend WM.To describe the clinical use of ultrasound biomicroscopy (UBM) to evaluate equine corneal disease. Methods: Images were obtained using a 50-MHz probe ultrasound biomicroscopy system (Quantel Aviso) and Clear Scan® probe cover. Six horses with corneal disease were evaluated via UBM for lesion size, lesion depth, and continuity of Descemet's membrane. Horses were sedated and received auriculopalpebral nerve blocks and application of topical anesthetic prior to UBM. Results: Ultrasound biomicroscopy was easily performed in all cases. UBM evaluation of three cases of corneo-limbal squamous cell c...
Wood AD, Sinovich M, Prutton JSW, Parker RA.To evaluate the accuracy of ultrasonographic guidance for injection near the ventral rami of the cervical spinal nerves (VRCSN). Methods: Ex vivo study. Methods: Ten cadavers (n = 40 injections). Methods: Left and right VRCSN at C4/5 and C5/6 were infiltrated at the intervertebral foramen (IVF) under ultrasonographic guidance. A vertically orientated 3.5-MHz curvilinear probe was used to identify the craniocaudal midpoint of the articular process joint (APJ). The probe was moved ventrally until the IVF was identified. An 18-gauge 15-cm-long spinal needle was aimed immediately below the ventral...
Perez-Jimenez EE, Biedrzycki AH, Morton AJ, McCarrel TM.To determine the influence of a custom 3D-printed guide for placement of cortical bone screws in the equine navicular bone. Methods: Ex vivo study. Methods: Eight pairs of normal adult equine forelimbs. Methods: A 3.5 × 55 mm cortical screw was placed in the longitudinal axis of each intact navicular bone. Screws were placed with a 3D-printed guide (3D) in one bone and with a traditional aiming device (AD) in the contralateral bone within each pair. Duration of surgery and the number of fluoroscopy images were compared between techniques. Screw placement was subjectively evaluated by gros...
Masko M, Borowska M, Domino M, Jasinski T, Zdrojkowski L, Gajewski Z.The horses' backs are particularly exposed to overload and injuries due to direct contact with the saddle and the influence of e.g. the rider's body weight. The maximal load for a horse's back during riding has been suggested not to exceed 20% of the horses' body weight. The common prevalence of back problems in riding horses prompted the popularization of thermography of the thoracolumbar region. However, the analysis methods of thermographic images used so far do not distinguish loaded horses with body weight varying between 10 and 20%. Results: The superficial body temperature (SBT) of the ...
Freitag GP, de Lima LGF, Jacomini JA, Kozicki LE, Ribeiro LB.This study proposes a standardized image analysis method for assessing horse conformation. A total of 34 adult American Quarter Horses (mean age = 6.7 ± 2.9 years, body weight = 489 ± 44 kg) were used. Reference angular measurements were performed using a digital goniometer, and reference linear measurements were determined using a standard measuring tape. For image analysis, photographs from the animal's left profile were taken at a distance of 3 m using eight markers to facilitate visualization. Images were processed using ImageJ software. Reference and estimated values showed great ac...
Worsman FCF, Miller ZJ, Shaw DJ, Blissitt KJ, Keen JA.Left atrial size predicts cardiac morbidity and mortality in humans and dogs. Real-time three-dimensional echocardiography (3DE) may be reliable for assessing left atrial volume (LAV) in horses. Objective: To determine intra- and interobserver variability estimates of 3DE-LAV and compare it to that of 2DE-LAV estimates. Methods: Method comparison. Methods: 3DE datasets were obtained from 40 horses, then graded for quality, creating a final study population of 22 horses. The 3DE and 2DE maximum LAV (LAV ) and minimum LAV (LAV ) were measured, and left atrial emptying volume (LA EV) and left atr...
Zhu X, Suarez-Jimenez B, Zilcha-Mano S, Lazarov A, Arnon S, Lowell AL, Bergman M, Ryba M, Hamilton AJ, Hamilton JF, Turner JB, Markowitz JC....While effective treatments for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) exist, many individuals, including military personnel and veterans fail to respond to them. Equine-assisted therapy (EAT), a novel PTSD treatment, may complement existing PTSD interventions. This study employs longitudinal neuro-imaging, including structural magnetic resonance imaging (sMRI), resting state-fMRI (rs-fMRI), and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), to determine mechanisms and predictors of EAT outcomes for PTSD. Nineteen veterans with PTSD completed eight weekly group sessions of EAT undergoing multimodal MRI assessme...
Vernemmen I, Vera L, Van Steenkiste G, Deserranno B, Muylle S, Decloedt A, van Loon G.Arrhythmias are common in horses, but catheter-based minimally invasive electrophysiological studies and therapeutic interventions have been poorly explored in equine medicine, partly due to the lack of detailed anatomical knowledge of the equine heart. Objective: To describe the dimensions and anatomical features of some electrophysiologically important landmarks of the right atrium in detail and assess their correlation with bodyweight and aortic diameter. Methods: Ex vivo cadaveric study. Methods: Twenty-one hearts of Warmblood horses, subjected to euthanasia for noncardiovascular reasons, ...
Curtiss AL, Ortved KF, Dallap-Schaer B, Gouzeev S, Stefanovski D, Richardson DW, Wulster KB.Subchondral bone pathology is common in Thoroughbred racehorses and believed to precede more serious injury. Early identification of pathology is critical to allow for intervention. Objective: To determine interobserver variability of fetlock subchondral bone lesions using cone beam and fan beam computed tomography (CBCT, FBCT) and to validate a robotics-controlled CBCT to identify fetlock subchondral bone pathology in the Thoroughbred racehorse. Methods: Prospective cohort study. Methods: FBCT and CBCT images were acquired of 25 metacarpo-/metatarsophalangeal joints of Thoroughbred racehorses...
Olusa TAO, Davies HMS.Finding an appropriate location for perpendicular positioning of the X-ray machine to produce zero lateromedial (ZLM) and zero dorsopalmar (ZDP) carpal images (views) and finding an acceptable range of rotational variations for measurement of carpal conformational parameters were two major challenges identified during field radiography of equine forelimbs. 16 cadaver forelimbs transacted at antebrachial midshaft from 10 horses (aged 9.13 ± 4.59 years) were axially mounted into a custom-built frame, and the radiographic machine and plate were perpendicularly aligned with the limb. Each limb...
Bevevino KE, Edwards JF, Cohen ND, de Solis CN.Ultrasonography is increasingly being used as a clinical and research method for evaluating the gastrointestinal tract in horses, however published studies comparing ultrasonographic and histologic characteristics of equine intestinal wall layers are currently lacking. Objectives of this prospective, observational, methods comparison, case series study were to compare the layering pattern and thickness of the intestinal wall layers determined using ex vivo and in vivo ultrasonography with those determined using histology. For the ex vivo study, twelve horses were euthanized for reasons unrelat...
Henry Barton M.The recent introduction of more affordable and portable ultrasound equipment makes it possible to perform transabdominal ultrasonography on equine patients in the field. Clipping the hair is not always necessary: intraabdominal structures can be quickly evaluated by soaking hair with isopropyl alcohol and using a 3.0- to 3.5-MHz curvilinear transducer. The ultrasonographer must be acquainted with the location and architecture of normal intraabdominal structures and simultaneously mindful of the depth of the viewing field, the tissue interface densities, the orientation of the transducer relati...
Partlow J, David F, Hunt LM, Relave F, Blond L, Pinilla M, Lavoie JP.Small volume pneumothorax can be challenging to diagnose in horses. The current standard method for diagnosis is standing thoracic radiography. We hypothesized that thoracic ultrasonography would be more sensitive. Objectives of this prospective, experimental study were to describe a thoracic ultrasound method for detection of small volume pneumothorax in horses and to compare results of radiography and ultrasound in a sample of horses with induced small volume pneumothorax. Six mature healthy horses were recruited for this study. For each horse, five 50 ml air boluses were sequentially introd...
Espinosa P, Spriet M, Sole A, Walker NJ, Vaughan B, Galuppo LD.To assess the feasibility of intra-arterial administration of allogeneic mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) in the median artery of standing horses and evaluate the distribution and retention of radiolabeled cells. Methods: In vivo experimental study. Methods: Six research horses. Methods: Technetium(99m) -HexaMethyl-Propylene-Amine Oxime-labeled MSC were injected under ultrasound guidance in the median artery of 6 front limbs of 3 horses, standing under sedation. Scintigraphic images were obtained at the time of injection, and at 1, 6, and 24 hours postinjection. Six additional limbs from 3 horses ...
Kold SE, Hickman J, Meisen F.The quantitative aspects of equine cancellous bone graft incorporation and the possibility of influencing graft incorporation by daily exposure to a pulsed electromagnetic field (PEMF) was studied in eight yearling ponies. In order to be able to quantify formative aspects of graft remodelling, a double and treble tetracycline intravital labelling technique was used. Intravital radiographs were obtained at regular intervals throughout the trial, but were found to be of little assistance in assessing any differences between stimulated and non-stimulated grafts. The ponies were humanely destroyed...
Rose PL, Abutarbush SM, Duckett W.Standing myelography in the horse has been previously described. In that study, metrizamide was used and significant complications were reported. In recent years, the introduction of less-toxic nonionic contrast media has reduced the incidence of complications. This study was undertaken to determine whether standing myelography using a nonionic contrast medium could provide a diagnostic study and be performed safely in the equine patient. Standing myelography was performed in eight horses. The contrast medium used was iohexol. In five horses a myelogram of diagnostic quality was achieved; in o...
Auer U, Schramel JP, Moens YP, Mosing M, Braun C.To assess changes in the distribution in pulmonary ventilation in anaesthetized ponies using electrical impedance tomography (EIT). Methods: Prospective experimental study. Methods: A group of eight adult pony geldings. Methods: General anaesthesia was induced and maintained using isoflurane in oxygen with volume-controlled ventilation [tidal volume (VT) (10 mL kg-1), respiratory rate (8-12 breaths minute-1)] to maintain end-tidal carbon dioxide between 35 and 40 mmHg (4.66-5.32 kPa). Regional distribution of ventilation was assessed with EIT (plane of fifth to sixth intercostal space) at 30, ...
Tomich LM, Pieper JB, Stern AW.Dermoscopy is a noninvasive diagnostic technique that allows visualization of structures of the superficial dermis not visible with the naked eye. Objective: To assess the usefulness and applicability of dermoscopy for evaluation of healthy equine skin. Methods: Twelve healthy horses from a research herd. Methods: Five regions (cheek, lateral neck, dorsum, flank and abdomen) were examined with contact dermoscopy using both nonpolarized and polarized light at both 17-fold and 24-fold magnification. These findings were compared to histological features of skin biopsies cut both longitudinally an...
Górski K, Borowska M, Turek B, Pawlikowski M, Jankowski K, Bereznowski A, Polkowska I, Domino M.Equine Odontoclastic Tooth Resorption and Hypercementosis (EOTRH) syndrome is a dental disease where the radiographic signs may be quantified using radiographic texture features. This study aimed to implement the scaled-pixel-counting protocol to quantify and compare the image structure of teeth and the density standard in order to improve the identification of the radiographic signs of tooth resorption and hypercementosis using the EOTRH syndrome model. Results: A detailed examination of the oral cavity was performed in 80 horses and maxillary incisor teeth were evaluated radiographically, in...
Brommer H, van Weeren PR, Brama PA.To evaluate a modified digital imaging technique for quantitative assessment of the grade of osteoarthritis across the proximal articular surface of the first phalanx in horses. Methods: 6 metacarpophalangeal (fet-lock) joint specimens from 6 horses with various stages of osteoarthritis. Methods: First phalanx specimens, together with 4 gray scale reference calibration targets, were positioned in a bath with the proximal articular cartilage surface submerged in saline (0.9% NaCl) solution. Digital images were obtained from the articular surface before and after staining with Indian ink. Comput...
Bouhali O, Bensmail H, Sheharyar A, David F, Johnson JP.Great advances have been made in human health care in the application of radiomics and artificial intelligence (AI) in a variety of areas, ranging from hospital management and virtual assistants to remote patient monitoring and medical diagnostics and imaging. To improve accuracy and reproducibility, there has been a recent move to integrate radiomics and AI as tools to assist clinical decision making and to incorporate it into routine clinical workflows and diagnosis. Although lagging behind human medicine, the use of radiomics and AI in veterinary diagnostic imaging is becoming more frequent...
Bellas E, Rollins A, Moreau JE, Lo T, Quinn KP, Fourligas N, Georgakoudi I, Leisk GG, Mazan M, Thane KE, Taeymans O, Hoffman AM, Kaplan DL....Soft-tissue regeneration methods currently yield suboptimal clinical outcomes due to loss of tissue volume and a lack of functional tissue regeneration. Grafted tissues and natural biomaterials often degrade or resorb too quickly, while most synthetic materials do not degrade. In previous research we demonstrated that soft-tissue regeneration can be supported using silk porous biomaterials for at least 18 months in vivo in a rodent model. In the present study, we scaled the system to a survival study using a large animal model and demonstrated the feasibility of these biomaterials for soft-tis...
van Zadelhoff C, Liuti T, Dixon PM, Reardon RJM.The performance of cone-beam CT (CBCT) systems compared to conventional helical multidetector CT (MDCT) imaging of the equine head is unknown. The aim of this prospective, method-comparison study was to compare the ability of CBCT and MDCT to detect abnormalities in equine cadaver heads. Eleven equine cadaver heads were scanned using a CBCT scanner and a 64-slice MDCT scanner. Consensus evaluations for CBCT and MDCT scans were performed by three observers. Identified abnormalities were grouped into subcategories with a focus on dental abnormalities. Kappa agreement values between detected abno...
Zauscher JM, Estrada R, Edinger J, Lischer CJ.To evaluate intra- and interobserver variability in ultrasonographic measurements of the proximal aspect of the suspensory ligament (PSL) in the horse. Objective: A minimum difference of ≥20% is required to differentiate reliably between physiological and pathological alterations related to dimensions. Methods: Two operators examined the PSL in all 4 limbs of 14 horses twice using different techniques and different probes with and without standoff pads. Measurements were taken from the longitudinal and transverse images. Inter- and intraoperator variability was evaluated using agreement indi...
McClure SR, Glickman LT, Glickman NW, Weaver CM.To determine the accuracy and precision of dual energy x-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) for measuring bone mineral density in horses in situ. Sample Population-12 randomly selected forelimbs from 12 horses. Methods: Metacarpi were scanned in 2 planes and DEXA measurements obtained for 6 regions of interest (ROI). Each ROI was isolated and bone density measured by Archimedes' principle. Linear regression analysis was used to determine the correlation between the 2 measurements at each ROI. An additional metacarpus was measured 10 times to determine the coefficient of variation for both techniques. R...
Labens R, Daniel C, Hall S, Xia XR, Schwarz T.Early diagnosis of cartilage disease at a time when changes are limited to depletion of extracellular matrix components represents an important diagnostic target to reduce patient morbidity. This report is to present proof of concept for nanoparticle dependent cartilage barrier imaging in a large animal model including the use of clinical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Conditioned (following matrix depletion) and unconditioned porcine metacarpophalangeal cartilage was evaluated on the basis of fluorophore conjugated 30 nm and 80 nm spherical gold nanoparticle permeation and multiphoton lase...
This study was designed to investigate whether horses with clinical signs of back pain due to suspected soft tissue injuries were affected by polysaccharide storage myopathy (PSSM). Diagnosis of PSSM in muscle biopsies obtained from the M. longissimus lumborum of 5 showjumpers and 4 dressage horses with a history of back pain is reported. M. longissimus lumborum biopsies of these horses were characterised histopathologically and in 3/9 cases also by electron microscopy. Observations were compared with M. gluteus biopsies of the same horses, and with M. gluteus biopsies obtained from 6 Standard...
Berner D, Brehm W, Gerlach K, Offhaus J, Scharner D, Burk J.Signal intensity (SI) of equine tendinopathies in MRI differs between the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) and the deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT). In DDFT lesions, short tau inversion recovery (STIR) SI decreases earlier than T2-weighted (T2w) SI, while the latter decreases earlier in SDFT lesions, but long-term results using STIR sequences are lacking. Methods: Standing MRI of eight horses with naturally occurring SDFT lesions was performed at the day of treatment as well as 2, 6 and 12 months after treatment. Results: After 12 months, six horses were sound and showed complete reso...
Martino NA, Marzano G, Mastrorocco A, Lacalandra GM, Vincenti L, Hinrichs K, Dell Aquila ME.Time-lapse imaging was used to establish the morphokinetics of equine embryo development to the blastocyst stage after invitro oocyte maturation (IVM), intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) and embryo culture, in oocytes held overnight at room temperature (22-27°C; standard conditions) before IVM. Embryos that developed to the blastocyst stage underwent precleavage cytoplasmic extrusion and cleavage to the 2-, 3- and 4-cell stages significantly earlier than did embryos that arrested in development. We then determined the rate of blastocyst formation after ICSI in oocytes held for 2 days at ...
Denoix JM, Jacot S, Bousseau B, Perrot P.This paper describes normal ultrasound images of the soft tissues of the dorsal and abaxial aspects of the equine fetlock. The palmar aspect of the fetlock is not discussed because it is related to the suspensory apparatus and flexor tendon anatomy which has been previously described. Ultrasound scanning was performed with 7.5 MHz linear or 10 MHz sector probes and recorded on 7.5 cm U-matic videocassettes allowing further retrospective data analysis, computer manipulation and good image reproducibility. Sagittal, parasagittal, frontal and transverse ultrasound scans of 13 lameness free mature...
Labens R, Schramme MC, Robertson ID, Thrall DE, Redding WR.Sonography is commonly used for diagnosis of desmopathy of the proximal part of the suspensory ligament in horses. However, magnetic resonance (MR) imaging has been stated to be superior for detecting disease and localizing lesions. In this retrospective study of 39 horses or 46 hind limbs with lameness due to proximal plantar metatarsal pain, the clinical and diagnostic findings are discussed and sonography and MR imaging compared for examination of the proximal part of the suspensory ligament. With MR imaging interpreted as the clinical gold standard, desmopathy of the proximal part of the s...
Lin ST, Bolas NM, Sargan DR, Restif O, Peter VG, Pokora R, Patrick H, Foote AK, Murray RC.Dorsoproximal osteochondral defects commonly affect the proximal phalanx, but information about diagnosis on computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is limited. Objective: To assess CT and MRI diagnoses of osteochondral defects, describe the lesions and compare sensitivity and specificity of the modalities using macroscopic pathology as gold standard. Methods: Cross-sectional study. Methods: Thirty-five equine cadaver limbs underwent standing cone-beam CT (CBCT), fan-beam CT (FBCT), low-field MRI and pathological examination. CT and MR images were examined for proximal ph...
Werpy NM, Ho CP, Kawcak CE.Distal forelimb specimens of eight skeletally mature horses were imaged using proton density turbo spin echo, T1-weighted spoiled gradient echo, T2*-weighted gradient echo, short tau inversion recovery and T2-weighted fast spin echo sequences with the limb parallel to the main magnetic field, and with angulation of the limb relative to the main magnetic field. The magic angle effect can be identified in the collateral ligaments of the distal interphalangeal joint when imaged in a high-field magnetic resonance (MR) imaging system with a horizontally oriented main magnetic field. This effect has...
Baratt RM.Radiography is an important imaging modality and is available to most equine veterinarians providing primary care. Diagnostic radiographic imaging of the equine skull and dentition requires careful positioning and technique. This article is aimed at providing the veterinarian with instructions and guidelines for obtaining diagnostic skull and dental radiographs and a discussion of the radiographic signs of dental disease with case-based examples. The limitations of radiography are discussed with regard to determining the need for adjunct diagnostic techniques and more advanced imaging techniqu...
Touzot-Jourde G, Geffroy O, Tallaj A, Gauthier O, Denoix JM. To describe the feasibility and dye diffusion of selective perineural injection of the 7 and 8th cervical nerve (C7 and C8) under ultrasonographic guidance in horses. Prospective experimental pilot cadaver study. Four equine cadavers of similar body weight (420-480 kg) and neck conformation. Five C7 and five C8 were perineurally injected with a dye solution. Anatomic dissections including vertebral canal opening were conducted to confirm nerve dye staining and describe the extent of color diffusion. The of the spinal cervical nerves was visualized in all cadavers. All the injections we...
Buck AR, Verstraete N, Li Y, Schweizer A, Snedeker JG, Buck FM.To assess the capability of a commercial sonoelastography system to detect small tendon lesions by quantitative analysis of elastogram profiles. Methods: Strips of equine digital flexor tendons were used to model small human tendons. Two tendons were examined. From each tendon, six unmodified tendon strips (controls) and six tendon strips with a central defect of the same tendons were compared. The tendon strips were placed under a physiological tensile strain of 5%. Sonoelastographic visualization of the strain profile was performed. Regions of interest (ROI) were defined left and right of th...
Vandecasteele T, van Loon G, Vandevelde K, De Pauw B, Simoens P, Cornillie P.Information on ultrasound examination of equine pulmonary veins is scarce due to a lack of in-depth anatomical information. Each pulmonary vein drains a specific lung lobe region, after which those veins merge into a collecting antrum, before opening into the left atrium through their respective ostia. The aim of this study was, by using anatomical dissection and silicone casting of equine cardiopulmonary sets, to study the venous drainage of both lungs and the position of the ostia and to investigate whether the ostia can be identified and differentiated using ultrasound. Three out of the fou...
Denoix JM.Conventional clinical examination remains of medical and economic value for diagnosis of soft tissue injuries in the equine athlete. This procedure requires concentration and rigor to establish the diagnosis, and, if possible, some experience to better evaluate the prognosis. None of the new imaging techniques can replace the physical examination, but each may provide additional information. These sophisticated methods are bringing considerable progress in the knowledge of locomotor injuries in the horse and a tremendous improvement in our ability to diagnose precisely lamenesses and limitatio...
Rose PL, Seeherman H, O'Callaghan M.Comminuted fractures of the middle phalanx have been well described in the horse. Choice of treatment, surgical planning and prognosis have traditionally been based upon evaluation of radiographs. However, the complex nature of comminuted fractures makes radiographic interpretation difficult. Computed tomography (CT) allows the production of cross-sectional images with spatial separation of structures which are superimposed on survey radiographs. This allows accurate assessment of the number and direction of fracture lines within the bone. In this paper we report the use of CT in the evaluatio...
Carstanjen B, Lepage OM, Detilleux J, Duboeuf F, Amory H.To evaluate the usefulness of multisite quantitative ultrasonography for noninvasive assessment of bone in horses. Methods: 12 healthy horses and both forelimbs from 8 clinically normal horses. Methods: For in vivo measurements, various regions of interest (ROI) were examined on the third metacarpal bone, radius, and tibia. Precision error for speed of sound (SOS) measurements was obtained by measuring each ROI of 4 horses 10 times with probe repositioning. Additionally, 3 operators measured each aspect of the third metacarpal bone of 6 horses 5 times each. For ex vivo measurements, third meta...
