The equine immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work collaboratively to defend against pathogens and maintain homeostasis. It consists of innate and adaptive components, each with distinct functions and mechanisms. The innate immune system provides the first line of defense through physical barriers, phagocytic cells, and the complement system. The adaptive immune system involves lymphocytes, such as B cells and T cells, which generate specific responses to antigens and provide immunological memory. Research in equine immunology explores the interactions between these components, the impact of genetic and environmental factors on immune function, and the development of vaccines and therapeutics. This page gathers peer-reviewed studies and scholarly articles focusing on the mechanisms, regulation, and clinical applications of the equine immune system in health and disease.
HORI J, AOKI K.Electrophoretic studies were made of normal horse and human serum albumins over the pH range 3.6–6.8 and at 25 °. The ionic strength of acetate or phosphate buffer used was 0.1, and the concentration of protein was 0.5% (g./100 ml.). Patterns were usually enantiographic and there were two (N and F1) or three (N, F1, and F2) boundaries in the pH range 3.6–5.2. The areas of the N and F1 boundaries changed continuously with pH, and the area of F2 was almost constant. The results were interpreted, in the same way as was previously done in the case of bovine serum albumin, by the isomerization...
HETRICK FM, YANCEY FS, HANSEN PA, BYRNE RJ. Four horses inoculated with EEE virus remained asymptomatic following injection but did develop measurable HI and neutralizing antibodies as a result of infection. HI antibodies were detectable earlier than neutralizing antibodies but the levels tended to drop more rapidly. 2. Of 14 horses and ponies having significant levels of neutralizing antibody, 5 to 9 had measurable HI antibody depending on number of units of antigen employed in the test. 3. Sera from 3 clinical cases of EEE were positive on the HI test while only one of these animals had a significant neutralizing antibody level.
KAPLAN MM, PAYNE AM.In 1957 the World Health Organization arranged a survey of horse and swine sera in a number of countries in order to gain information on the role and importance of animals in the epidemiology of influenza. The veterinary services of the countries concerned were requested to obtain blood specimens from these animals, if possible both before and after the human pandemic of Asian influenza. This paper reports on the results of haemagglutination-inhibition and complement-fixation tests performed on these sera in WHO Influenza Centres and other collaborating laboratories.It is apparent from these r...
Pezzanite LM, Chow L, Phillips J, Griffenhagen GM, Moore AR, Schaer TP, Engiles JB, Werpy N, Gilbertie J, Schnabel LV, Antczak D, Miller D, Dow S....Rapid development of antibiotic resistance necessitates advancement of novel therapeutic strategies to treat infection. Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) possess antimicrobial and immunomodulatory properties, mediated through antimicrobial peptide secretion and recruitment of innate immune cells including neutrophils and monocytes. TLR-3 activation of human, canine and equine MSC has been shown to enhance bacterial killing and clearance in vitro, in rodent Staphylococcal biofilm infection models and dogs with spontaneous multi-drug-resistant infections. The objective of this study was to determi...
Atkinson JP.1. The globulins of both normal and diphtheria antitoxic serum exhibit chemically toward reagents the same reactions, being precipitated by magnesium sulphate and split up into fractions in precisely the same way. 2. All of the diphtheric antitoxic power of both normal and immunized serum is always carried by the globulin and its fractional precipitates. 3. During the fractional precipitation of the serum globulin of horses immunized from diphtheria toxin and horses not immunized from diphtheria toxin, some of the globulin is lost, likewise at the same time some of the antitoxic power of the g...
Laviada MD, Roy P, Sánchez-Vizcaíno JM, Casal JI.Segment 10 of the double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) genome from African horse sickness virus serotype 4 (AHSV-4) was cloned and sequenced. The sequence of the coding region showed a total length of 667 bp. Nucleotide comparisons showed a 95% sequence similarity between serotypes 4 and 9, and 76% between serotypes 4 and 3. cDNA clones containing the coding region were cloned in the vector pET3xb and expressed in Escherichia coli. The NS3 gene product was synthesised at very high level as an insoluble fusion protein. The recombinant protein was used in a differential ELISA to distinguish horses that w...
Watson ED, Zanecosky HG.Immunosuppressive substances which interfere with lymphocyte blastogenesis are released in vitro by embryos and endometrium from mares in early pregnancy. Immunosuppression was not evident when tissues were cultured in the presence of indomethacin (a prostaglandin-synthesis inhibitor). Various prostaglandins (PGs) were added to equine lymphocytes and lymphocyte proliferation was measured after the addition of concanavalin A (Con A) or phytohaemagglutinin A (PHA). PGE2 and PGF2 alpha inhibited Con A-induced blastogenesis down to final concentrations of 1.8 x 10(-9) M and 1.3 x 10(-6) M, respect...
Matthews AG.Distribution of the immunoglobulin (Ig) classes G, A and M within the anterior uvea of eight clinically normal equine eyes was examined using indirect immunoperoxidase labelling. Increased staining intensity of stromal IgG and IgA was observed within the ciliary processes, the iris stroma being relatively free of immunoglobulin. This may reflect anatomical variation in the permeability of the uveal microvasculature to lipid insoluble plasma macro-molecules. Intracellular IgG and IgA were observed within the non-pigmented ciliary epithelium in seven and four of the eight eyes respectively, alth...
Mayers J, Westcott D, Steinbach F.Using the commercially available PEPperCHIP® microarray platform, a peptide microarray was developed to identify immunodominant epitopes for the detection of antibodies against Equine arteritis virus (EAV). For this purpose, the whole EAV Bucyrus sequence was used to design a total of 1250 peptides that were synthesized and spotted onto a microarray slide. A panel of 28 serum samples representing a selection of EAV strains was tested using the microarray. Of the 1250 peptides, 97 peptides (7.76%) showed reactivity with the EAV-positive samples. No single peptide was detected by all the positi...
Forsell PK, Lindberg A, Karlsson S, Lindgren JA, Claesson HE.It has been demonstrated that equine neutrophils, but not eosinophils, require exogenous arachidonic acid for calcium ionophore A23187-induced leukotriene synthesis. Because cytosolic phospholipase A(2) (cPLA(2)) plays an essential role in leukotriene formation in leukocytes, we investigated the presence of a functional cPLA(2) in equine neutrophils. To determine whether cPLA(2) from neutrophils was catalytically active, we purified the enzyme >6,500 fold with 3% recovery from equine neutrophils. The full-length cDNA sequence encoded a 749-amino acid protein. The deduced amino acid sequence...
Bilzer T, Grabner A, Stitz L.Tissues from nine horses and one donkey suffering from natural Borna disease were investigated. Clinically, all animals demonstrated progressive reduced mentation and aggravating gait disturbances. During the clinical course anorexia and progressive loss of proprioception were observed. Cranial nerve failure was accompanied by signs of pharyngeal paralysis, sialorrhea, bruxism, and by blindness. Virologically, infectious virus was detected in the brain of all animals investigated but was not found regularly in all areas of the brain. However, in all cases, infectivity was found in the thalamus...
Malmquist WA, Becvar CS.Equine infectious anemia (EIA) cell antigens prepared from infected equine spleen, equine leukocyte cultures or a persistently infected equine dermis cell line contained at least two serologically reacting components. For convenience one component was designated as soluble antigen (SA) and the other as cell-associated antigen (CAA). The SA appeared as a single component when it was prepared from EIA virus precipitated from infectious tissue culture fluid with polyethylene glycol and ether treated but it was mixed with CAA when the source was infected cells. Cytolytic or mechanical disruption o...
Zayed M, Adair S, Ursini T, Schumacher J, Misk N, Dhar M.Osteoarthritis (OA), the most common form of joint disease affecting humans and horses, is characterized by the advance and decline of cartilage and loss of function of the affected joint. The progression of OA is steadily accompanied with biochemical events, which interfere with the cytokines and proteolytic enzymes responsible for progress of the disease. Recently, regenerative therapies have been used with an assumption that mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) possess the potential to prevent the advancement of cartilage damage and potentially regenerate the injured tissue with an ultimate goal o...
Fontes KFLP, Silva-Júnior LC, Nascimento SA, Chaves DP, Pinheiro-Júnior JW, Freitas AC, Castro RS, Jesus ALS.A codon-optimized equine infectious anemia virus p26 gene was fused to a maltose-binding protein (MBP) and expressed in Escherichia coli for use as an antigen in agar gel immunodiffusion (AGID) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for diagnosis of equine infectious anemia. An analysis of analytical sensitivity and specificity showed that the antigen MBP-p26rec reacted positively with a reference World Organization for Animal Health serum and demonstrated no cross-reaction against sera from vaccinated animals in either test. The diagnostic characteristics were evaluated and presented e...
Hudgens E, Tompkins D, Boyd P, Lunney JK, Horohov D, Baldwin CL.This report describes the cloning and characterization of expressed gene sequences of bovine, equine, and swine CXCL9 from RNA obtained from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and other tissues. The bovine coding region was 378 nucleotides in length, while the equine and swine coding regions were 381 nucleotides. Mapping showed that all three sequences were coded for in four exons in the genome, as are the human and mouse genes. The bovine, equine, and swine coding regions shared 83%, 86%, and 84% homology with human CXCL9, respectively, and all three were 74% homologous with mouse CXCL...
Casseb Ado R, Nunes MR, Rodrigues SG, Travassos da Rosa ES, Casseb LM, Casseb SM, da Silva SP, Rodrigues ED, Vasconcelos PF.The Amazon as a whole is the largest reservoir of arboviruses worldwide, while the Brazilian Amazon hosts the largest variety of arboviruses isolated to date. In this study, the results of an indirect sandwich IgG ELISA, standardized for 19 arbovirustypes circulating among horses in Brazilian Amazon, were compared to results of the hemagglutination inhibition test. A screening test assessed the conditional probability distribution and a Pearson linear correlation test determined the correlation strength among the absorbance values recorded for viruses from the same family. Results: Sensitivity...
Kumar S, Malik P, Verma SK, Pal V, Gautam V, Mukhopadhyay C, Rai GP.Glanders, caused by the Gram-negative, nonmotile bacterium Burkholderia mallei, is a contagious and highly fatal disease of equines. During the last decade, the number of glanders outbreaks has increased steadily. The disease also has high zoonotic significance and B. mallei is listed biological warfare agent. The complement fixation test (CFT) is a routinely used and internationally recognized test to screen equine sera for the glanders. However, discrepant results have been observed using the CFT. The low sensitivity and specificity of the CFT and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) ha...
Nielsen MK, Rubinson EF, Chambers TM, Horohov DW, Wagner B, Betancourt A, Reedy SE, Jacobsen S.Anthelmintics and vaccines are commonly given concurrently in routine equine management, but it is unknown to what extent an interaction between the two exists. Cyathostomins can modulate the local immune response by stimulating a type 2 helper T cell (Th2) response. In addition, anti-inflammatory effects of ivermectin have been found in rodent models. It is unknown whether these anti-inflammatory effects affect the acute phase response elicited by commonly used vaccines. This study evaluated how the acute phase inflammatory response, leukocyte expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and vac...
Lind C, Chen J, Byrjalsen I.We developed a rapid, competitive enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for measuring 25-hydroxyvitamin D3 [25(OH)D3] in serum. The EIA was based upon 25(OH)D3-3-hemisuccinate covalently coupled to secondary amino groups grafted onto the polystyrene surface of microtiter wells. Optimal coupling conditions were established, and we found that inclusion of 40 mumol/L chloramine T, an agent not previously described for use in coupling to these plates, resulted in both more reproducible coupling as well as more than a twofold increase in the coupling efficiency. Before EIA, 25(OH)D3 was extracted from the serum...
Dreher UM, de la Fuente J, Hofmann-Lehmann R, Meli ML, Pusterla N, Kocan KM, Woldehiwet Z, Braun U, Regula G, Staerk KD, Lutz H.In the context of a serosurvey conducted on the Anaplasma marginale prevalence in Swiss cattle, we suspected that a serological cross-reactivity between A. marginale and A. phagocytophilum might exist. In the present study we demonstrate that cattle, sheep and horses experimentally infected with A. phagocytophilum not only develop antibodies to A. phagocytophilum (detected by immunofluorescent-antibody assay) but also to A. marginale (detected by a competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay). Conversely, calves experimentally infected with A. marginale also developed antibodies to A. phagoc...
Bottoms GD, Johnson MA, Lamar CH, Fessler JF, Turek JJ.Dispersed equine vascular endothelial cells grown in tissue culture, and freshly isolated neutrophils were used to determine direct effects of endotoxin on cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase products. Endothelial cells (10(7)/ml) or neutrophils (2 X 10(6)/ml) were incubated with (a) buffer, (b) endotoxin (10 micrograms/ml), (c) endotoxin + flunixin meglumine (10 micrograms/ml), or (d) calcium ionophore, A23187 (10 micrograms/ml). Thromboxane (TxB2), prostacyclin (6-keto-PGF1 alpha), and leukotriene C4 (LTC4) were determined in the incubation fluid by radioimmunoassay. Thromboxane and prostacyclin...
Pomelova VG, Gaĭdamovich SIa, Demenev VA, Kadoshnikov IuP.A three-step concentration of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis (VEE) virus from tissue culture fluid was carried out in a two-phase system of polyethyleneglycol (PEG)--sodium dextran sulphate (SDS). The concentration method was based on the dependence of virus distribution coefficient upon NaCl content in the system which allowed alternating transfer of the virus from one phase of the system into the other. The infectious activity of the virus increased approximately 100-fold after the first step, 190-fold after the second, and 300-fold after the third step. The process of concentration was...
Bonhomme D, Werts C.Leptospirosis is a zoonotic infectious disease affecting all vertebrates. It is caused by species of the genus Leptospira, among which are the highly pathogenic L. interrogans. Different mammals can be either resistant or susceptible to the disease which can present a large variety of symptoms. Humans are mostly asymptomatic after infection but can have in some cases symptoms varying from a flu-like syndrome to more severe forms such as Weil's disease, potentially leading to multiorgan failure and death. Similarly, cattle, pigs, and horses can suffer from acute forms of the disease, including ...
Lee GKC, Kang H, Beeler-Marfisi J, Sears W, Lillie BN, Bienzle D.Salivary scavenger and agglutinin (SALSA) is a secreted protein with various immunomodulatory roles. In humans, the protein agglutinates and inactivates microorganisms, and inhibits the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Saliva, which is rich in SALSA, accelerates bacterial phagocytosis, but SALSA's contribution is unclear. In horses, the functions of SALSA in inflammation remain undetermined, so they were investigated through phagocytosis and cytokine assays. Equine SALSA was purified from duodenal tissue, which contains abundant SALSA. To assess phagocytosis, fluorescently-labelled bacte...
Camire AC, O'Bier NS, Patel DT, Cramer NA, Straubinger RK, Breitschwerdt EB, Funk RA, Marconi RT.Lyme disease (LD) is a tick-transmitted bacterial infection caused by Borreliella burgdorferi and other closely related species collectively referred to as the LD spirochetes. The LD spirochetes encode an uncharacterized family of proteins originally designated rotein amily welve (PF12). In B. burgdorferi strain B31, PF12 consists of four plasmid-carried genes, encoding BBK01, BBG01, BBH37, and BBJ08. Henceforth, we designate the PF12 proteins amily welve ipoprotein (Ftl) (FtlA) (BBK01), FtlB (BBG01), FtlC (BBH37), and FtlD (BBJ08). The goal of this study was to assess the potential utility o...
Tajima M, Araiso T, Koyama T, Fujinaga T, Otomo K, Koike T.The membrane viscosity of peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs) of equine, bovine and canine was measured by the use of time-resolved fluorescence depolarization technique with 1, 6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene (DPH). The viscosity values were 0.55, 0.59 and 0.50 poise for equine, bovine and canine PBLs, respectively. These values were compared with steady-state anisotropies and order parameters measured from electron spin resonance (ESR) of 5-doxyl stearic acid. Both values were increased with increase of viscosity. The fluid property of the membranes stimulated with phytohemagglutinin-P (PHA) was...
Cui C, Li L, Wu L, Wang X, Zheng Y, Wang F, Wei H, Peng J.A healthy intestine plays an important role in the growth and development of farm animals. In small intestine, Paneth cells are well known for their regulation of intestinal microbiota and intestinal stem cells (ISCs). Although there has been a lot of studies and reviews on human and murine Paneth cells under intestinal homeostasis or disorders, little is known about Paneth cells in farm animals. Most farm animals possess Paneth cells in their small intestine, as identified by various staining methods, and Paneth cells of various livestock species exhibit noticeable differences in cell shape, ...
Jonsdottir S, Svansson V, Stefansdottir SB, Mäntylä E, Marti E, Torsteinsdottir S.Insect bite hypersensitivity is an immunoglobulin (Ig)E-mediated dermatitis of horses initiated by bites of midges of the genus Culicoides. Culicoides spp. are not indigenous to Iceland and the prevalence of insect bite hypersensitivity is much higher in horses born in Iceland and exported as compared to Icelandic horses born in a Culicoides rich environment. Immunotherapy is therefore needed. Objective: The aim of the study was to express an allergen from Culicoides in barley grain and investigate whether an immune response could be obtained in healthy Icelandic horses by oral treatment with ...
Komori M, Higami A, Imai Y, Imaoka S, Funae Y.A form of P450 [termed P450(h-1)] was purified from the liver microsomes of a male horse to electrophoretic homogeneity. The specific content of the final P450(h-1) preparation was 14.8 nmol/mg of protein and the recovery was 0.38% of the microsomal P450. The apparent molecular weight of P450(h-1) was 52,000 Da. The absorption spectra of P450(h-1) indicated that P450(h-1) was a low- and high-spin mixed type P450 in the oxidized form. The reconstituted system containing P450(h-1) could catalyze benzphetamine N-demethylation, 7-ethoxycoumarin O-deethylation, and testosterone 16 alpha-hydroxylati...
Müntener CR, Gassner B, Demuth DC, Althaus FR, Zwahlen R.We received 62 reports of suspected adverse events (SARs) for the year 2004. Their number and repartition according to affected animals and active substances were comparable with the previous year. The distributors or manufacturers submitted most of the declarations, but the proportion submitted by practicing veterinarians is slowly growing. 72% of the declarations dealt with adverse reactions in small animals (cats and dogs), followed by cattle and horses. Antiparasitics, anti-inflammatory drugs and immunologicals were the most frequently mentioned therapeutic classes, which are listed here a...
Pomorski Z, Pinkiewicz E, Grzebuła S.In the studies attempts were to demonstrate the occurrence of immunological reactivity against antigens of the lens and tunica vascularis of the eye in periodical inflammation of eyes in horses. For this purpose antigens from the lens and tunica vascularis of the eye, prepared in our laboratory, were used in the experiments. The reactivity of horses with monthly symptoms of blindness against the above antigens was determined in vivo (skin tests and PCA) and in vitro (ID reaction). The results obtained mainly in skin tests account for its occurrence in some percentage of diseased animals, becau...
Turki I, Hammami A, Kharmachi H, Mousli M.Human and equine rabies immunoglobulins are currently available for passive immunization against rabies. However, these are hampered by the limited supply and some drawbacks. Advances in antibody engineering have led to overcome issues of clinical applications and to improve the protective efficacy. In the present study, we report the generation of a trivalent single-chain Fv (scFv50AD1-Fd), that recognizes the rabies virus glycoprotein, genetically fused to the trimerization domain of the bacteriophage T4 fibritin, termed 'foldon' (Fd). scFv50AD1-Fd was expressed as soluble recombinant protei...
Niedzwiedz A, Jaworski Z, Kubiak K.Equine recurrent airway obstruction (RAO), also known as heaves, is one of the most common respiratory problems in older horses. When RAO-affected horses stay pastured or in a dust-free environment for a prolonged time, clinical signs as well as airway inflammation wane. A number of environmental, immunologic, infectious, and genetic factors play an important role in the pathogenesis of RAO, and the immunologic basis of this disease is still poorly understood. Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate the concentrations of allergen-specific IgE in the serum of horses suffering from R...
