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Topic:Ligaments
Ligaments in horses are fibrous connective tissues that connect bones to other bones, providing stability and support to the skeletal structure. These structures are integral to maintaining joint function and facilitating movement. In equine anatomy, ligaments are involved in various functions, including supporting the limbs and allowing for efficient locomotion. Common ligaments in horses include the suspensory ligament, which plays a significant role in supporting the fetlock joint, and the nuchal ligament, which supports the head and neck. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, function, injury mechanisms, and rehabilitation of ligaments in horses.
Short echo time magnetic resonance imaging of tendon. Current clinical magnetic resonance (MR) imaging studies provide almost no useful signal from normal tendon and have no clear advantage over other imaging modalities in the evaluation of tendon injuries. The authors believe that tendon MR signal may be T2-limited, and, if so, could be enhanced by short echo time (TE) pulse sequences. The relationship of tendon signal intensity and tendon infrastructure conspicuity to TE was assessed at three different field strengths. Methods: Magnetic resonance imaging studies were performed on samples of normal equine tendon at 3 different field strengths wi...
The correlation between the dose and distribution of intratendinous fluid injections in the flexor tendons/ligaments of the horse. An in vitro study was carried out to define the correlation between the dose and distribution of intratendinous fluid injections in the different flexor tendons/ligaments of the palmar/plantar, metacarpal/metatarsal region of the horse. Injection of 0.1-0.2 ml resulted in a local intratendinous fluid depot showing minimal abaxial spreading and more extensive proximodistal expansion. If 0.3-0.5 ml was injected the abaxial spreading remained minimal but the proximodistal expansion increased significantly, the depots in the axial proximal, mid and distal region flowing together. Also minimal peri...
A study of 118 cases of navicular disease: treatment by navicular suspensory desmotomy. The 118 horses diagnosed as suffering from navicular disease by prospective criteria were treated by desmotomy of the ligamenta sesamoidea collateralia (navicular suspensory desmotomy). Three techniques were used and a standard post-operative programme was followed with clinical and radiological evaluations at 6-monthly intervals for periods of 6-36 months after surgery. At 6 and 36 months after treatment, 76% and 42.9% of horses were sound respectively. The clinical features of age, period of lameness, severity of lameness and angular limb deformities adversely affected response to surgery. T...
Endoscopically assisted annular ligament release in horses. An endoscopically assisted technique for internally dividing the palmar or plantar annular ligament was developed in six cadaver limb specimens and two anesthetized horses. Under arthroscopic view, a slotted cannula was inserted into the digital sheath through a stab wound proximal to the annular ligament and advanced through the fetlock canal superficial to the flexor tendons with the slot oriented toward the fibers of the annular ligament. Division of the annular ligament by 90-degree tipped open and guarded blades was observed and verified by direct arthroscopic view. At necropsy, complete ...
Desmitis of the accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon in the horse: clinical and ultrasonographic features. A report of 24 cases. The clinical and ultrasonographic features of desmitis of the accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon (carpal check ligament) are reported in a series of 24 horses. Lameness associated with the carpal check ligament especially was found in Warmblood riding horses ranging in age from 6 to 18 years with a mean age of 11.3 years. The most striking clinical feature was a firm, painful swelling medially and laterally in the proximal and/or mid metacarpal region, corresponding with the dorsoproximal-palmarodistal oblique direction of the carpal check ligament. Sonographically swelling o...
Ultrasonographic observations of the flexor tendons and ligaments of the metacarpal region of horses. Observations were made in dorsal and sagittal planes of the ultrasonographic mean gray scale of the flexor tendons and ligaments of the metacarpal regions of 5 Thoroughbred geldings, during weight bearing and nonweight bearing. In images made when the horses were nonweight bearing, the mean gray scale of the superficial and deep digital flexor tendons and accessory ligament was significantly reduced, but that of the interosseous medius muscle (suspensory ligament) was not. When relaxed, collagen fiber bundles in the tendons and ligaments acted as diffuse, rather than specular, reflectors of ul...
Incarceration of the large colon in the gastrosplenic ligament of a horse. Incarceration of the large colon through a rent in the gastrosplenic ligament of a horse was surgically corrected via ventral midline celiotomy. Clinical signs were similar to those in other horses with nonstrangulating large colon disorders. Diagnosis of large colon incarceration in the gastrosplenic ligament was determined by surgical abdominal exploration. The findings of medial deviation of the spleen, location of the large colon lateral to the stomach and caudolateral to the spleen, and caudocraniad passage of the large colon through the gastrosplenic ligament are similar to findings in h...
A comparison of responses to analgesia of the navicular bursa and intra-articular analgesia of the distal interphalangeal joint in 59 horses. Analgesia of the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joint and of the navicular bursa was performed independently in the lame or lamer forelimb of 59 horses, in which lameness was significantly improved by perineural analgesia of either the palmar digital or palmar (abaxial sesamoid) nerves. In 3 horses no improvement was detected. Lameness was improved by analgesia of the DIP joint but there was no response to analgesia of the navicular bursa in 3 horses. In 12 horses, lameness was improved by analgesia of the navicular bursa but intra-articular analgesia resulted in no change. Forty-one horses resp...
The incidence and severity of intercarpal ligament damage in the equine carpus. The arthroscopic findings in 104 intercarpal joints in 76 horses were reviewed to determine the incidence and severity of changes in the medial intercarpal ligament. Damage to the intercarpal ligament was observed in 43 joints in 35 horses, ranging from mild fraying of the edges of the ligament to complete disruption of all fibres. This represented an incidence of 41% of joints being affected. In 9 joints examined arthroscopically primarily as a further diagnostic procedure, ligament damage was evident in all cases. In horses undergoing arthroscopic surgery primarily for the treatment of osteo...
[The laterocranial fascia structures in the upper and forearm and the differences in the insertion of the M. biceps brachii in domestic mammals]. The laterocranial fascia of the upper arm and forearm, as well as aponeurotic relationships of the Musculus biceps brachii were investigated on each of ten forelimbs from horses, cattle and swine. Ten canine biceps were also investigated. Equine and bovine fascia contain elastic components. An as-yet undescribed ligament-like aponeuroses of the laterocranial forearm fascia to the Fossa radialis humeri was seen in all three species studied. The laterocranial fascia of the upper and forearm form a common passage for the Musculi brachialis et extensor carpi radialis. In the case of the horse, the...
In vivo tendon forces in the forelimb of ponies at the walk, validated by ground reaction force measurements. The load distribution over tendinous structures in the equine forelimb was studied by computing forces from in vivo signals of implanted liquid-metal strain gauges in 5 ponies. For validation, these tendon forces were converted to joint moments, which were summed and compared to the calculated joint moments caused by the ground reaction force. Mean peak forces per kilogram body weight (n = 5) amounted to 5.2 N/kg for the superficial digital flexor tendon, 3.8 N/kg for the deep digital flexor tendon, 7.3 N/kg for the distal accessory (check) ligament and 8.4 N/kg for the third interosseous musc...
Small intestinal incarceration through the lateral ligament of the urinary bladder in a horse. Small intestinal incarceration through the lateral ligament of the urinary bladder was diagnosed in a 14-year-old, 569-kg, castrated Quarter Horse. The incarceration was corrected by ventral midline celiotomy. Approximately 70 cm of the middle portion of the jejunum was resected and end-to-end, single-layer anastomosis was performed. After surgery, the horse developed signs of adynamic ileus and lameness in the right forelimb. The horse developed laminitis in all 4 feet within 24 hours of surgery. The horse was euthanatized because of poor prognosis for survival. At necropsy, a 4.5-cm rent was...
Strain of the musculus interosseus medius and its rami extensorii in the horse, deduced from in vivo kinematics. The in vivo strains of the musculus interosseus medius (suspensory ligament) and its rami extensorii (extensor branches) in the forelimb of the horse were determined from angular changes of the metacarpophalangeal and the distal interphalangeal joints. For this purpose, regression models were fitted to strains and joint angle combinations measured in in vitro limb loading experiments. The in vivo strains were computed from the kinematics of 8 horses at the walk, the trot and the canter. It was found that the extensor branches were strained about 1.0% at hoof impact, which indicates that they p...
Use of an ecraseur for ovariohysterectomy in mares. Ovariohysterectomy was performed in 20 mares at three stages of estrus. An ecraseur was used to severe the ovarian branch of the ovarian artery and vein and the ovarian suspensory ligament en masse. All other vessels supplying the ovaries and uterus were doubly ligated and transected. All mares survived. Complications were intraoperative hemorrhage in three mares, postoperative vaginal bleeding in two mares, and a hematoma in the remnant of the broad ligament in one mare. No adhesions between the uterine stump or remnants of the broad ligament and abdominal structures were detected by palpatio...
Tearing of the medial palmar intercarpal ligament in the equine midcarpal joint. Tearing of the medial palmar intercarpal ligament is described in 45 intercarpal (midcarpal) joints in 42 horses (37 racehorses, 5 non-racehorses). Of the 37 racehorses, there were 20 Quarter Horses, 14 Thoroughbreds and 3 Standardbreds. The patients had been referred for arthroscopic surgery for removal of osteochondral chip fragments that had been diagnosed radiographically or diagnostic arthroscopy of a persistent carpal problem. The problem was unilateral in 39 horses and bilateral in 3. The presenting clinical signs were lameness and/or persistent synovial effusion. In one instance, the p...
Bilateral subluxation of the pastern joint in the forelimbs of a foal. A three-month-old foal was presented with subluxation of the proximal interphalangeal joint in both forelimbs. The condition, which was considered to represent an unusual manifestation of breakdown of the suspensory apparatus, appeared to have developed as a consequence of extreme overexertion, 10 days previously. This had resulted in rupture of the palmar supporting structures of the joint; namely, the superficial distal sesamoidean ligament, the insertion of the superficial digital flexor tendon and the palmar joint capsule. Severe laxity of the flexor tendons had been present in the neonata...
Evaluation of support bandaging during measurement of proximal sesamoidean ligament strain in horses by use of a mercury strain gauge. Liquid mercury strain gauges were implanted in the forelimb proximal sesamoidean ligaments (PSL) of 8 adult horses. The gauges measured PSL strain while horses were standing with or without external support. In 6 of the horses, the gauges also measured PSL strain in horses at a walk, with or without external support. Gauges were enclosed within sliding polypropylene tubes to prevent nonaxial deformation. Each gauge was placed in 1 arm of a low-resistance half-bridge circuit. To provide temperature compensation, a dummy gauge was placed in the adjacent arm of the bridge circuit and was implante...
Radiographic anatomy of soft tissue attachments in the equine metacarpophalangeal and proximal phalangeal region. The sites of bony attachment of the tendons, ligaments, and fibrous portion of the joint capsules of the equine metacarpophalangeal (fetlock) joint region were determined by gross dissection. These sites were transposed to standard radiographic views of the fetlock joint to yield illustrations that can be used as an aid in the diagnosis of soft tissue pathology from radiographs. Evidence of direct attachment of the common digital extensor tendon to the proximal phalanx was not found. Branches of the superficial digital flexor tendon were found to insert only on the middle phalanx. The recently...
The risk of severity of limb injuries in racing thoroughbred horses. A retrospective study was carried out to identify factors which predisposed Thoroughbred horses to severe injuries, as compared to less severe injuries, while racing on New York Racing Association (NYRA) tracks during the period of January 1986 to June 1988. A severe injury was defined as an injury which led to humane destruction of the horse. A less severe injury was defined as a horse which didn't race within 6 months following a muscular, ligament, tendon, or skeletal injury on the racetrack. The data were obtained from the Horse Identification Department records kept by the Chief Examining...
Four forearm flexor muscles of the horse, Equus caballus: anatomy and histochemistry. Two of the forearm flexors of the horse, the superficial and deep digital flexor muscles, are critical to support the digital and fetlock joints, exhibit differing insertions, and are passively supported by the proximal and distal check ligaments, respectively. These two muscles differ in histochemical composition and architecture. The differences are correlated with the different stress levels transmitted through their tendons, and the different frequencies of clinical breakdown that have been reported. Both muscles contain type I and type IIa fibers. A few type IIb fibers occurred in the dee...
Long-term effects of desmotomy of the accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor muscle in standardbreds: 23 cases (1979-1989). Desmotomy of the accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor muscle (inferior check desmotomy) permitted Standardbred foals affected with flexural deformities to reach their full athletic potential. Long-term effects of inferior check desmotomy were examined in 23 Standardbreds over a 10-year period. Six of 11 foals that were treated surgically either raced 6 times and obtained a race record or were training sound (if yearlings). All 12 horses with flexural deformity that did not receive an inferior check desmotomy had an unfavorable outcome (no race record). Foals that had surgery performed...
Suspensory apparatus prosthesis in the horse. Part 1: In vitro mechanical properties. Mechanical properties of equine suspensory apparatus preparations and three braided synthetic prostheses were evaluated in vitro. Force versus displacement plots and failure modes were recorded from single load-to-failure testing in 18 cadaver limbs before and after replacement of each suspensory apparatus with a prosthesis. Mean load at failure, energy to failure, and stiffness values of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) prostheses were lower than those of the suspensory apparatus and aramid prosthesis. The PTFE prosthesis failed by elongation or rupture of the prosthesis. Mechanical properties ...
Preliminary studies on the vascular anatomy of the equine superficial digital flexor tendon. The vascular and microvascular anatomy of normal equine superficial digital flexor tendons was studied by dissection of vinyl-perfused specimens and by microangiography on high detail film. The presence of an extensive intratendinous vascular latticework was confirmed, and a 'nutrient artery' described closely associated with the accessory ligament of the superficial digital flexor tendon (proximal check ligament). Circumferential stripping of the paratenon from the tendon to eliminate afferent vessels was performed bilaterally in three horses and unilaterally in a fourth, followed by a treadm...
An ultrasonographic off-set system for examination of equine tendons and ligaments. In a dorsal plane, an improved ultrasonographic off-set system was used to obtain serial ultrasonographic images with enhanced anatomic and pathologic detail of the tendons, ligaments, and associated structures of the limbs of 100 horses. The off-set provided good acoustic coupling between a linear array ultrasonographic transducer and the horse's skin. A water-soluble gel contained within the off-set had acoustic properties similar to those of mammalian soft tissues.
Desmitis of the accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon: 27 cases (1986-1990). Desmitis of the accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon (ALDDFT) was diagnosed in 27 horses between September 1986 and December 1990. The first observed clinical sign in four horses was localised swelling in the proximal metacarpus. Twenty horses became lame suddenly during a work period and most developed swelling within 24 h of exercise. The injury was confirmed by ultrasonographic examination. Ten of 13 horses with uncomplicated desmitis of the ALDDFT resumed full work, within three to nine months of the onset of clinical signs, without recurrence of clinical signs in the perio...
Desmotomy of the accessory ligament of the superficial digital flexor muscle in equine cadaver limbs. Effects of longitudinal compression before and after transection of the accessory ligament of the superficial digital flexor (SDF) muscle were measured in eight equine cadaver forelimbs. When compression was increased from 890 N to 3115 N, the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) and carpal joints hyperextended 20 degrees and 4 degrees, respectively, and strain in the SDF and deep digital flexor tendons was increased 3.5% and 1.4%, respectively. The accessory ligament did not elongate. Immediately after transection of the accessory ligament at 3115 N load, a 2.8 mm gap formed between the transected ends ...
Ultrasonographic evaluation of fetlock annular ligament constriction in the horse. The diagnosis of restriction of free movement of the flexor tendons through the fetlock canal usually rests on the characteristic clinical appearance of this condition, or airtendography. In a series of seven normal Warmblood horses and 16 diseased horses of various breeds, the efficacy of ultrasonography in the diagnosis of this condition was determined. In normal limbs, the annular ligament is a very thin structure usually not visible on sonograms. In diseased limbs, ultrasonography outlined flexor tendon injury, distension and thickening of the digital sheath, peritendovaginal tissue prolif...
A comparison of two techniques for arthrocentesis of the equine metacarpophalangeal joint. Because arthrocentesis of the metacarpophalangeal joint through the proximal palmar pouch may induce synovial haemorrhage, this study evaluated arthrocentesis through the lateral collateral sesamoidean ligament. The proximal palmar pouch and collateral sesamoidean ligament approaches were used in contralateral forelimbs to obtain paired initial synovial fluid samples from 16 horses 12 to 15 h before being killed. Synovial fluid samples also were collected from the same joints at necropsy and the subcutis, synovium and articular cartilage were evaluated. Metacarpophalangeal joint arthrocentesis...
Composition and morphologic features of the interosseous muscle in Standardbreds and Thoroughbreds. Suspensory ligaments (SL) from 32 Thoroughbreds and 32 Standardbreds were collected to evaluate the variation in muscle content with respect to age, breed, sex, limb, and use. Six transverse sections, each 3 to 5 mm thick, were obtained from each SL. Four sections were taken from the body of the SL and 1 from the midportion of each branch. Sections were stained with van Gieson picric acid-fuchsin solution, then photographed, and black-and-white slides were made from the processed negatives. The transverse-sectional area of the SL and the contained muscle were determined by use of a computer wi...
Proximal suspensory desmitis: clinical, ultrasonographic and radiographic features. Clinical, ultrasonographic and radiographic features of proximal suspensory desmitis in the forelimb and the hindlimb are described. Acute cases may present with slight, localised, oedematous swelling, heat, distension of the medial palmar (plantar) vein and/or pain, whereas chronic cases or those rested immediately after onset of lameness usually have no detectable clinical signs suggestive of the source of pain. In these cases local analgesia is required to identify pain in the proximal metacarpal (metatarsal) region. Transverse ultrasonographic images of the suspensory ligament usually yiel...
