The metacarpal bone in horses is a key component of the equine forelimb, consisting primarily of the third metacarpal bone, commonly referred to as the cannon bone, and the smaller second and fourth metacarpal bones, known as splint bones. These bones provide structural support and play a vital role in weight-bearing and locomotion. The third metacarpal bone is the largest and most prominent, extending from the carpus (knee) to the fetlock joint. Its strength and integrity are essential for the horse's ability to perform various physical activities. The second and fourth metacarpal bones are positioned on either side of the third metacarpal and are remnants of evolutionary development. They can be involved in conditions such as splints, where inflammation occurs due to stress or trauma. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, function, and clinical aspects of metacarpal bones in horses, including their role in equine biomechanics and common pathologies.
Plevin S, McLellan J.The occurrence of bucked shins in young Thoroughbred racehorses in North America is high. Although an altered training regime has demonstrated a significant decrease in this condition, trainers can be opposed to altering something as fundamental as their training routine. Periosteal scraping of the third metacarpal bone (McIII) is a putative prophylactic technique used to prevent bucked shins; therefore, a study to investigate the validity of the procedure is warranted. Objective: To investigate whether prophylactic McIII scraping: 1) reduces the incidence of bucked shins in juvenile Thoroughb...
Minshall GJ, Wright IM.Accurate radiological and ultrasonographic descriptions of frontal plane fractures of the accessory carpal bone (ACB) are lacking, and implications of these fractures for the carpal sheath and its contents have not previously been reported. Objective: Aims were as follows: 1) to describe the location and radiological features of frontal plane fractures of the ACB; 2) to document communication of displaced fractures with the carpal sheath and consequent injury to the deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT); 3) to describe ultrasonographic identification of lesions; and 4) to report tenoscopic evaluat...
Wright IM, Minshall GJ.Osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) of the distal sagittal ridge of the third metacarpal bone (McIII) has not previously been described in the literature. Objective: To describe the clinical, radiological and arthroscopic features of OCD of the distal sagittal ridge of the McIII and to report outcome in a series of cases. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Case records and images of horses with OCD of the distal sagittal ridge of the McIII admitted to a single referral centre between February 2006 and February 2013 were reviewed. Follow-up information was obtained by telephone questionna...
Roepstorff L, Wiestner T, Weishaupt MA, Egenvall E.The aim of this study was to compare an inertial motion system (IMS) to an optical based locomotion analysis system measuring limb sagittal segment angles in horses at the walk and trot. The metatarsal/metacarpal bones of two horses (20 trials) were fitted with optical system markers and an IMS. Between the systems, measuring range of motion (ROM) of the sagittal metatarsal/metacarpal bone angles, the IMS measured higher ROM than the optical system (bias 1.6°; precision at 1.96 standard deviation 1.9°). The same angle data were used to assess inter-limb symmetry by calculating phase shift be...
Alber MT, Brown MP, Merritt KA, Trumble TN.Palmar osteochondral disease (POD) is an overload arthrosis that commonly affects fetlock joints of racing Thoroughbreds (TB) but the aetiopathogenesis of the disease has not been well defined. Objective: The aim of this study was to compare India ink perfusion in the dorsal and palmar condyles of the third metacarpal bone (McIII) in both passively flexed and maximally extended fetlock joints from paired equine cadaver limbs. Methods: Descriptive cadaver study comparing perfusion of condyles of McIII in paired cadaver limbs in flexion (control group) and maximal extension (intervention group)....
Martig S, Lee PV, Anderson GA, Whitton RC.In racehorses, fatigue related subchondral bone injury leads to overt fracture or articular surface collapse and subsequent articular cartilage degeneration. We hypothesised that the fatigue behaviour of equine subchondral bone in compression follows a power law function similar to that observed in cortical and trabecular bone. We determined the fatigue life of equine metacarpal subchondral bone in-vitro and investigated the factors influencing initial bone stiffness. Subchondral bone specimens were loaded cyclically in compression [54MPa (n=6), 66MPa (n=6), 78MPa (n=5), and 90MPa (n=6)] until...
Lustgarten M, Redding WR, Labens R, Morgan M, Davis W, Seiler GS.Tendon and ligament injuries are common causes of impaired performance in equine athletes. Gray-scale ultrasonography is the current standard method for diagnosing and monitoring these injuries, however this modality only provides morphologic information. Elastography is an ultrasound technique that allows detection and measurement of tissue strain, and may provide valuable mechanical information about equine tendon and ligament injuries. The purpose of this study was to determine the feasibility, reproducibility, and repeatability of elastography; and to describe elastographic characteristics...
Rubin CT, Seeherman H, Qin YX, Gross TS.Distributions of normal strain, shear strain, and strain energy density (SED) were determined across the midshaft of the third metacarpal (MCIII, or cannon bone) of 3 adult thoroughbred horses as a function of speed and gait. A complete characterization of the mechanical demands of the bone made through the stride and from mild through the extremes of locomotion was possible by using three 3-element rosette strain gauges bonded at the diaphyseal midshaft of the MCIII and evaluating the strain output with beam theory and finite element analysis. Mean ± sd values of normal strain, shear strain,...
Westermann S, Buchner HH, Schramel JP, Tichy A, Stanek C.To assess effects of camera angle and distance on measurement and reproducibility of thermographically determined temperatures of the distolateral aspect of the forelimbs in horses. Methods: Evaluation study. Methods: 10 adult horses. Methods: Thermographic images of both forelimbs were obtained at 3 times during the day (replicates 1, 2, and 3); maximum surface temperature over 1 region (distolateral aspect of the third metacarpal bone and metacarpophalangeal joint) was measured. Standard images were obtained every 5 minutes for 1 hour with the camera positioned at an angle of 90° and a dist...
Carstens A, Kirberger RM, Dahlberg LE, Prozesky L, Fletcher L, Lammentausta E.The purpose of this study was to determine whether delayed gadolinium-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging of cartilage (dGEMRIC) and T2 mapping are accurate techniques for measuring cartilage thickness in the metacarpus3/metatarsus3 (Mc3/Mt3) of Thoroughbred racehorses. Twenty-four Mc3/Mt3 cadaver specimens were acquired from six healthy racehorses. Cartilage thickness was measured from postintra-articular Gd-DTPA(2-) images acquired using short tau inversion recovery (STIR), and proton density weighted (PDw) sequences, and compared with cartilage thickness measured from corresponding histolog...
Singer E, Garcia T, Stover S.The biomechanical circumstances that promote sagittal fracture of the equine proximal phalanx (P1) are poorly understood. In order to improve our understanding of equine metacarpophalangeal joint (MCPJ) biomechanics and potential aetiologies of sagittal P1 fractures, the study objectives were to quantify P1 bone strains, collateromotion and axial rotation during MCPJ extension under controlled loading circumstances. Unilateral limbs from six cadavers were instrumented with bone reference markers for measurement of P1 movement relative to third metacarpal bone positions during axial limb loadin...
Symons JE, Entwistle RC, Arens AM, Garcia TC, Christiansen BA, Fyhrie DP, Stover SM.To determine morphological and mechanical properties of trabecular bone of horses with a bone fragility syndrome (BFS; including silicate-associated osteoporosis). Methods: Cylindrical trabecular bone samples from the distal aspects of cadaveric third metacarpal bones of 39 horses (19 horses with a BFS [BFS bone samples] and 20 horses without a BFS [control bone samples]). Methods: Bone samples were imaged via micro-CT for determination of bone volume fraction; apparent and mean mineralized bone densities; and trabecular number, thickness, and separation. Bone samples were compressed to failur...
Hauspie S, Forsyth R, Vanderperren K, Declercq J, Martens A, Saunders JH.The objective of this study is to describe the normal histological appearance of the dorsoproximal aspect of the sagittal ridge of the third metacarpal/metatarsal bone in young Warmblood horses, and to compare it to the different radiographic variations (irregular, indentation, lucency, notch) described at this level. A total of 25 metacarpo/metatarsophalangeal joints of 12 Warmblood horses were used. Five samples of each radiographically described group were selected for histological processing. Each category was compared with the normal control group. Each group showed a bone cortex, covered...
McD￮ LA, Pack L, Lores M, Wright GM, Esparza-Gonzalez B, Masaoud E.To compare the efficacy of osteoprogenitors in fibrin glue to fibrin glue alone in bone healing of surgically induced ostectomies of the fourth metacarpal bones in an equine model. Methods: Experimental. Methods: Adult horses (n = 10). Methods: Segmental ostectomies of the 4th metacarpal bone (MC4) were performed bilaterally in 10 horses. There was 1 treatment and 1 control limb in each horse. Bone defects were randomly injected with either fibrin glue and osteoprogenitor cells or fibrin glue alone. Radiography was performed every week until the study endpoint at 12 weeks. After euthanasia, bo...
Seabaugh KA, Hubert JD, Kawcak CE, McGilvray KC, Santoni BG, Rao S, Baxter GM.To quantify changes in biomechanical stability and stiffness within the equine carpus after removal of 50%, 80%, and 100% of the second metacarpal bone (MC2). Methods: In vitro biomechanical study. Methods: Cadaveric equine forelimbs (n = 16) were evaluated. Intact constructs were loaded in axial compression from 0 to 5000 N and compression + torsion (5000 N ± 20°) for 5 cycles. This was repeated after removal of 50%, 80%, and 100% of MC2. The primary biomechanical outcome variables were the compressive stiffness and compressive + torsional stiffness of the carpus. Relative kinematic motion ...
Quinteros DD, García-López JM, Abuja GA, Tarkanian M, Maranda LS, Bubeck K, Kowaleski MP.To determine if the mechanical properties (strength and stiffness) of a new prototype 4.5 mm broad locking plate (NP-LP) are comparable with those of a traditional 4.5 mm broad limited-contact self compression plate (LC-SCP), and to compare the bending and torsional properties of the NP-LP and LC-SCP when used in osteotomized equine third metacarpal bones (MC3). Methods: The plates alone were tested in four-point bending single cycle to failure. The MC3-plate constructs were created with mid-diaphyseal osteotomies with a 1 cm gap. Constructs were tested in four-point bending single cycle to fa...
Furniss C, Carstens A, van den Berg SS.This study involves the evaluation of pre-purchase radiographic studies of South African Thoroughbred yearlings. Radiographic changes were recorded and compared with similar international studies. The study differs from other studies in that a lower prevalence of pedal osteitis (1.26%), dorsal osteochondral fragmentation of the metatarsophalangeal joint (1.60%), distal metacarpal sagittal ridge changes (15.7%), ulnar carpal bone lucencies (8.33%), carpal osteophytes (1.19%), distal intertarsal and tarsometatarsal joint radiographic changes (9.92%), tarsal osteochondrosis lesions (4.40%) and st...
Alrtib AM, Philip CJ, Abdunnabi AH, Davies HM.There are many reports describing fractures in the bony elements of the equine fetlock joint and a few of these discuss possible relationships of these fractures to the mechanical loading of these bones. The likelihood of fracture must be related to the size and shape of bones involved, but information concerning the normal range in size and shape of these bones in horses is lacking. This study aimed to identify morphometrical variations of these bones within different groups of horses. Right and left metacarpal, proximal phalangeal and proximal sesamoid bones were collected from 10 Thoroughbr...
Lescun TB, Baird DK, Oliver LJ, Adams SB, Hawkins JF, Moore GE.To determine the extent to which a hydroxyapatite coating promotes pin stability in the third metacarpal bone during transfixation casting in horses. Methods: 14 adult horses. Methods: 7 horses each were assigned to either an uncoated or hydroxyapatite-coated pin group. Three transcortical pins were placed in the third metacarpal bone of each horse and incorporated into a cast for 8 weeks. Insertion and extraction torque were measured, and torque reduction was calculated. Radiography was performed at 0, 4, and 8 weeks. Lameness evaluation was performed at 2, 4, 6, and 8 weeks. Bacteriologic cu...
Dymock DC, Pauwels FE.To describe key morphological attributes of the third metacarpal bone (Mc3) of horses and to determine whether or not the symmetry of the Mc3 varied significantly between limbs of the same horse. Methods: Ten pairs of metacarpi were collected from slaughter facilities. The age and breed of the horses were recorded. Fixed points and axes that could be easily reproduced between bones were identified on high-quality photographic images of each bone. Using image analysis, three angles were measured. Angle gamma measured the rotation around the long axis of the diaphysis of Mc3, angle delta the ang...
Nagy A, Bodó G, Dyson SJ.There is limited information on potential diffusion of local anaesthetic solution after various diagnostic analgesic techniques of the proximal metacarpal region. Objective: To document potential distribution of local anaesthetic solution following 4 techniques used for diagnostic analgesia of the proximal metacarpal region. Methods: Radiodense contrast medium was injected around the lateral palmar or medial and lateral palmar metacarpal nerves in 8 mature horses, using 4 different techniques. Radiographs were obtained 0, 10 and 20 min after injection and were analysed subjectively. A mixture ...
Jacklin BD, Wright IM.Although fractures of the metacarpal and metatarsal condyles are the most common long-bone fractures of Thoroughbred horses in training, limited data on variations in morphology and incidence have been published. Additionally, grouped analyses of previous studies from the UK and USA would permit comparison between study groups and the creation of a substantial pool of international data. Methods: Retrospective analysis of case records of horses with fractures of the distal condyles of third metacarpal/metatarsal bones seen over the last 10 years at Newmarket Equine Hospital. The current series...
Bertoni L, Forresu D, Coudry V, Audigie F, Denoix JM.To characterize the clinical features, diagnostic procedures, treatment, and outcome for horses with an exostosis on the palmar or plantar cortex of the third metacarpal bone (MC3) or third metatarsal bone (MT3). Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: 16 horses. Methods: Records from 2001 through 2010 were evaluated to identify horses with radiographic and ultrasonographic evidence of an exostosis on an MC3 or MT3. Signalment, history, lameness examination results, diagnostic imaging results, surgical and histopathologic findings, treatment, and outcome were evaluated. Results: 9 horses ...
Cohen JM, Southwood LL, Engiles J, Leitch M, Nunamaker DM.To examine the efficacy and biocompatibility of a thiolated gelatin-thiolated carboxymethyl hyaluronan (CMHA-SGX) sponge as an osteoconductive device in an equine second and fourth metacarpal bone defect model. Methods: Seven millimetre segmental ostectomies were created bilaterally in the second and fourth metacarpal bones of four horses. The left and right metacarpal defects were randomly assigned to (1) be filled with a CMHA-SGX sponge (treated) or (2) were left unfilled (control). The duration of the study was nine weeks. Bone healing was evaluated using serial radiology, as well as histol...
Southwood LL, Kawcak CE, Hidaka C, McIlwraith CW, Werpy N, Macleay J, Frisbie DD.To evaluate gene transfer in an equine metacarpal IV (MCIV) ostectomy model using adenoviral vectors encoding the human bone morphogenetic protein-2 and protein-7 gene (Ad-BMP-2/-7). Methods: Healthy adult horses (n = 15). Methods: A plate stabilized, critical size 1.5 cm ostectomy was created in left and right MCIV. The ostectomy site was injected with either Ad-green fluorescent protein (Ad-GFP) or Ad-hBMP-2/-7 at completion of surgery; the same treatment was assigned to both the left and right forelimb of each horse (n = 5 horses/group). Bone healing was evaluated radiographically every 2 w...
Henson FM, Getgood AM, Caborn DM, McIlwraith CW, Rushton N.To investigate effects of 1% hyaluronic acid-chondroitin sulfate-N-acetyl glucosamine (HCNAG) on the damage repair response in equine articular cartilage. Methods: Articular cartilage from 9 clinically normal adult horses. Methods: Full-thickness cartilage disks were harvested from the third metacarpal bone. Cartilage was single-impact loaded (SIL) with 0.175 J at 0.7 m/s and cultured in DMEM plus 1 % (vol/vol) HCNAG or fibroblastic growth factor (FGF)-2 (50 ng/mL). Histologic and immunohistochemical techniques were used to identify tissue architecture and apoptotic cells and to immunolocalize...
Tsuzuki N, Otsuka K, Seo J, Yamada K, Haneda S, Furuoka H, Tabata Y, Sasaki N.This study evaluated the therapeutic effects of a gelatin-β-TCP sponge (sponge) incorporating BMP-2 (BMP-2/sponge) on bone regeneration in equines. Six bone defects were created in third metacarpals of five thoroughbred horses, and a total of six treatments were applied in a randomized manner. The treatments were BMP-2/sponge, BMP-2/gelatin hydrogel sheet (sheet), free BMP-2, bFGF/sheet, plain sponge, and plain sheet. The defects were monitored for 16 weeks by radiography and then examined by histological analysis. Radiographic evaluation scores of bone regeneration revealed significantly gre...
Tranquille CA, Parkin TD, Murray RC.Lateral condylar (LC) fractures of the third metacarpus (McIII) are a common reason for euthanasia in racehorses, and may be the result of repetitive overloading or cumulative pathological change. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) allows monitoring of bone and cartilage to detect pathological and adaptive changes that may be precursors of fracture. Objective: To describe bone and cartilage MRI features in the distal condyles of McIII of Thoroughbred racehorses, with and without condylar fracture. Objective: 1) A greater degree of bone and cartilage adaptation or pathology will be seen in fractu...
Yovich JV, McIlwraith CW, Stashak TS.Osteochondritis dissecans of the sagittal ridge of the third metacarpal and metatarsal bones was diagnosed in 8 horses during an 18-month period. Seven of the horses were less than or equal to 2 1/2 years old. Synovial distention of the affected fetlock joints and a pain response to fetlock flexion were typical findings. Lameness predominated in 1 limb at a trot, although fetlock flexion frequently elicited lameness in other affected limbs. Radiography revealed bony lesions (flattening, erosion, or fragmentation) of the sagittal ridge in at least 2 fetlock joints in all horses. The onset of si...
Fradinho MJ, Mateus L, Bernardes N, Bessa RJB, Caldeira RM, Ferreira-Dias G.Development of a healthy musculoskeletal system is of high concern for horse breeders and users. A longitudinal field study was performed in order to: (i) evaluate growth patterns and long-term changes on bone quality, bone metabolism, growth factors and metabolic variables in the Lusitano horse; and (ii) retrospectively assess whether these changes were related with radiographic findings regarding osteochondrosis-like lesions (OC) at the onset of training. Thirty-four Lusitano foals born and raised at four stud-farms, were periodically weighed (BW), and measured (withers height-WH) from birth...
Gilday R, Richard H, Beauchamp G, Fogarty U, Laverty S.The administration of bisphosphonate medications, which target osteoclastic-bone remodelling, to juvenile and adult racehorses is a matter of debate owing to concerns that these molecules remain bound to the bone-mineralised matrix and may interfere with subsequent bone growth, adaptation to exercise and healing of bone microdamage in equine athletes. Osteoclasts participate in endochondral ossification, subchondral bone remodelling and bone repair. There is a knowledge gap on the role of equine osteoclast biology in the growth and maturation of joint surfaces and this information is important...
Zekas LJ, Bramlage LR, Embertson RM, Hance SR.The objectives of this study were to correlate condylar fracture characteristics and type of treatment with subsequent capacity for athletic ability, and to determine the characteristics of healing that affect prognosis after fracture fixation. Medical records, post operative radiographic studies and race records were examined for 135 horses sustaining 145 fractures. Sixty-five percent of horses overall started in a race post injury (SPI) in a mean time of 9.7 months with a mean of 13.7 races post injury. Having raced pre-injury did not confer an advantage to starting post injury, though nonst...
Hill AE, Gardner IA, Carpenter TE, Lee CM, Hitchens PL, Stover SM.Knowledge of the site distribution of ligamentous injuries facilitates clinical diagnosis of suspensory apparatus conditions. Objective: To determine if lesions within the suspensory ligament (SL) and distal ligaments of the proximal sesamoid bones (DSLs) were associated with suspensory apparatus failure or metacarpal lateral condylar fracture in California Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods: Cross-sectional study. Methods: Suspensory apparatus specimens from 327 deceased Thoroughbred racehorses were sectioned within the SL body and branches, and oblique and straight DSLs. Purple lesions ≥2 ...
Nunamaker DM, Butterweck DM, Provost MT.Geometric properties of the third metacarpal bone were compared between the young and adult Standardbred and Thoroughbred racehorse. The change in shape during growth and superimposed training was dramatic in both breeds but the Thoroughbred showed the greatest difference in the minimum moment of inertia as the animal matured. Males had larger moments of inertia throughout the length of the diaphysis than did females. The differences in geometric properties of the third metacarpal bone between the Thoroughbred and Standardbred were related to the incidence of fatigue fractures which are common...
Firth EC, Doube M, Boyde A.To show that changes are present at the site of origin of metacarpal condylar fracture in young Thoroughbred horses before they enter race training. Methods: Bone slices, 2 mm thick, in three mediolateral planes through the centre of rotation of the metacarpo-phalangeal joint (MCPJ) of both distal third metacarpal bones (Mc3) of 12 Thoroughbred horses aged 17 months, were imaged using point-projection digital X-ray imaging (muXR). Results: In some horses, linear or ovoid radiolucency was found in articular calcified cartilage (ACC) and subchondral bone of the palmaro-distal aspect of the sagit...
Carstanjen B, Lepage OM, Detilleux J, Duboeuf F, Amory H.To evaluate the usefulness of multisite quantitative ultrasonography for noninvasive assessment of bone in horses. Methods: 12 healthy horses and both forelimbs from 8 clinically normal horses. Methods: For in vivo measurements, various regions of interest (ROI) were examined on the third metacarpal bone, radius, and tibia. Precision error for speed of sound (SOS) measurements was obtained by measuring each ROI of 4 horses 10 times with probe repositioning. Additionally, 3 operators measured each aspect of the third metacarpal bone of 6 horses 5 times each. For ex vivo measurements, third meta...
Zubrod CJ, Schneider RK, Tucker RL.Four horses were examined because of chronic forelimb lameness. In all horses, the cause of the lameness was localized to the metacarpus by means of physical examination and diagnostic anesthesia, and radiography of the affected limb revealed a small exostosis of the second metacarpal bone. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed suspensory desmitis in the region of this exostosis in all 4 horses. In addition, an abnormal area of low signal intensity, suggestive of an adhesion, was seen between the exostosis and the suspensory ligament. In all horses, an adhesion between the suspensory ligament an...
Schneider RK, Bramlage LR, Gabel AA, Barone LM, Kantrowitz BM.The medical records and radiographs of all horses with a third carpal bone fracture admitted to The Ohio State University Veterinary Hospital from 1979 to 1987 were reviewed. Three hundred and seventy-one fractures were found in 313 horses; 57 percent were Standardbreds, 41 per cent were Thoroughbreds, and only 1.6 per cent were Quarterhorses. All were young racehorses (average age = 3.1 years). Third carpal fractures occurred more frequently in the right limb (60 percent) than the left limb (40 percent); Thoroughbreds had a greater right-left disparity (67.5 percent R, 27.1 per cent L). Fract...
Bischofberger AS, Fürst A, Auer J, Lischer C.Osteosynthesis of third metacarpal (McIII) and third metatarsal (MtIII) bone fractures in horses is a surgical challenge and complications surrounding the repair are common. Retrospective studies evaluating surgical repair, complications and outcome are necessary to increase knowledge and improve success of long bone fracture repair in the horse. Objective: To evaluate clinical findings, surgical repair, post operative complications and outcome of 10 mature horses and 11 foals with McIII or MtIII fractures that were treated with open reduction and internal fixation (ORIF). Methods: Medical rec...
Hogan PM, McIlwraith CW, Honnas CM, Watkins JP, Bramlage LR.Subchondral cystic lesions (SCLs) in the condyle of the third metacarpal bone (MCIII) were surgically treated in 15 horses. The median age at presentation was 18 months (range 10 months-12 years) with 10 of 15 horses less than age 2 years. The SCLs were confined to the front limbs in all cases with 2 horses having bilateral lesions. Lesions were isolated to the medial condyle(s) of MCIII in 13 of 15 horses; a cystic lesion occurred in the lateral condyle in one horse and in the sagittal ridge in one horse. One horse with bilateral lesions had an additional cystic lesion located in the right me...
Leahy PD, Smith BS, Easton KL, Kawcak CE, Eickhoff JC, Shetye SS, Puttlitz CM.Computed tomography (CT) data can be employed with respect to determining mechanical properties and has been used to predict parameters such as elastic modulus, yield strength, and ultimate strength of intact bone. Micro-computed tomography (muCT) possesses the resolution capable of detecting apparent bone density in extremely local regions and can characterize the trabecular structure. It has been asserted that this micro-structure is susceptible to micro-buckling and bending, which has a controversial role in predicting the global mechanical properties of bone. The current study measured the...
Lescun TB, McClure SR, Ward MP, Downs C, Wilson DA, Adams SB, Hawkins JF, Reinertson EL.To evaluate clinical findings, complications, and outcome of horses and foals with third metacarpal, third metatarsal, or phalangeal fractures that were treated with transfixation casting. Methods: Retrospective case series. Animals-29 adult horses and 8 foals with fractures of the third metacarpal or metatarsal bone or the proximal or middle phalanx. Methods: Medical records were reviewed, and follow-up information was obtained. Data were analyzed by use of logistic regression models for survival, fracture healing, return to intended use, pin loosening, pin hole lysis, and complications assoc...
De Guio C, Ségard-Weisse E, Thomas-Cancian A, Schramme M.The metacarpophalangeal joint is a common site of pain in horses. Little information is available about bone marrow lesions in the distal condyles of the third metacarpal bone in sports and pleasure horses. Aims of this prospective, retrospective, observational study were to evaluate the prevalence of bone marrow lesions in the distal condyles of the third metacarpal bone, to describe their anatomic distribution and to correlate lesions with the presence of lameness and the level and type of activity. All sports and pleasure horses undergoing standing low-field MRI of the front fetlock region ...
Boyde A, Firth EC.We describe morphological aspects of the articular calcified cartilage mineralizing front 'tidemark' in the distal joint surface of the third metacarpal bone from 14 horses. Compositional backscattered electron scanning electron microscopy and confocal scanning light microscopy were conducted on polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA)-embedded medio-lateral slices. After maceration, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to study the calcified cartilage surface in the 'wedges' intervening between the slices. An anatomically reproducible clustering of canals in the calcified cartilage was found at o...
Moyer W, Spencer PA, Kallish M.The relative incidence of dorsal metacarpal disease was examined in two groups of Thoroughbred racehorses training on dissimilar surfaces (dirt and wood fibre). The horses and training methods appeared to be similar. The incidence of disease was significantly greater in the group training on dirt. There was no significant difference in the age distribution of incidence between the two groups and there was no association of incidence with sex or age within the training group. The number of fast miles worked by the two groups prior to the onset of dorsal metacarpal disease was lower in the group...
Launois MT, Vandeweerd JM, Perrin RA, Brogniez L, Desbrosse FG, Clegg PD.3 horses with lameness localized to the proximal aspect of the metacarpus or metatarsus. Results: All horses had evidence of problems that originated from the proximal aspect of the suspensory ligament (PASL), including signs of pain on palpation, positive results of diagnostic nerve blocks, ultrasonographic detection of enlargement and diffuse areas of reduced echogenicity in the proximal region of insertion of the ligament, and radiographic detection of increased mineral opacity in the proximal aspect of the metacarpus or metatarsus. Desmitis of the PASL was diagnosed in each horse; however,...
Rubin CT, Seeherman H, Qin YX, Gross TS.Distributions of normal strain, shear strain, and strain energy density (SED) were determined across the midshaft of the third metacarpal (MCIII, or cannon bone) of 3 adult thoroughbred horses as a function of speed and gait. A complete characterization of the mechanical demands of the bone made through the stride and from mild through the extremes of locomotion was possible by using three 3-element rosette strain gauges bonded at the diaphyseal midshaft of the MCIII and evaluating the strain output with beam theory and finite element analysis. Mean ± sd values of normal strain, shear strain,...
Gibson VA, Stover SM, Martin RB, Gibeling JC, Willits NH, Gustafson MB, Griffin LV.This is the first in a series of experiments to study the fatigue properties of equine cannon (third metacarpal) bone specimens from Thoroughbred racehorses. Monotonic and fatigue tests to failure were performed in four-point bending on diaphyseal specimens in a 37 degrees C saline bath to answer three initial questions. (a) Will a linear variable differential transducer yield the same elastic modulus as strain gauges? (b) Will fatigue results depend on whether the periosteal or endosteal side of the beam is in tension? (c) Are there regional variations in the monotonic and fatigue properties ...
Firth EC, Rogers CW, Jopson N.The response of equine bone to training has not been quantified in racetrack trained horses, only in treadmill exercised horses. Seven two-year-old thoroughbred fillies were trained on sand and grass at a racetrack, in a typical New Zealand flatrace training regime. The horses were exercised 6 days per week for up to 13 weeks. During the day the horses were confined in 4 x 4m sand yards, and were stalled at night. Another 7 fillies of the same age were allowed free exercise in grass yards. The bones of the animals were available after the 13 week experimental period, and were examined using a ...
Bolt DM, Burba DJ, Hubert JD, Pettifer GR, Hosgood GL.Extracorporeal shock wave therapy is becoming increasingly used in equine practice to treat musculoskeletal disorders. Although the exact effects of extracorporeal shock waves on tissues still need to be elucidated, transient cutaneous analgesia has been observed within treated areas in humans and horses. The purpose of this study was to determine the onset, magnitude, and duration of cutaneous analgesia after non-focused extracorporeal shock wave (ESW) application by comparing the limb withdrawal reflex latency (LWRL) in treated and untreated areas on the metacarpus of horses, using a focused...
Trope GD, Ghasem-Zadeh A, Anderson GA, Mackie EJ, Whitton RC.High-resolution 3D imaging may improve the prediction and/or early identification of condylar fractures of the distal metacarpus/tarsus and reduce the frequency of breakdown injury in racehorses. Objective: To test the hypotheses that horses suffering condylar fractures have higher bone volume fraction (BV/TV) of the distal metacarpal epiphysis, greater subchondral bone thickness at the fracture site and higher second moment of inertia in the metacarpal midshaft as identified with high-resolution 3D imaging. Methods: Cross-sectional study using cadaver material. Methods: Thoroughbreds that die...
Pagliara E, Marenchino M, Antenucci L, Costantini M, Zoppi G, Giacobini MDL, Bullone M, Riccio B, Bertuglia A.Fetlock joint angle (FJA) pattern is a sensitive indicator of lameness. The first aim of this study is to describe a network of inertial measurement units system (IMUs) for quantifying FJA simultaneously in all limbs. The second aim is to evaluate the accuracy of IMUs for quantifying the sagittal plane FJA overground in comparison to bi-dimensional (2-D) optical motion capture (OMC). 14 horses (7 free from lameness and 7 lame) were enrolled and analyzed with both systems at walk and trot on a firm surface. All enrolled horses were instrumented with 8 IMUs (a pair for each limb) positioned at t...
Davies HM, Gale SM, Baker ID.The aim of this study was to determine if changes in the shape of the third metacarpal bone (MC3) during the first preparation for racing in young Thoroughbred racehorses could be measured radiographically. Lateral radiographs of each MC3 were taken when the horses commenced training, every 2 weeks for 10 weeks, and again at 6 months after the start of training. The width of the dorsal cortex (DC), palmar cortex (PC), and medulla (M) were measured at a position 2.5 cm distal to the nutrient foramen before the subject of each radiograph was identified. The following ratios were calculated: z = ...
Colgan SA, Hecker AT, Kirker-Head CA, Hayes WC.To determine risk of failure of the Synthes 4.5-mm cannulated screw system instrumentation in equine bone and to compare its application with the Synthes 4.5-mm standard cortex screw system. Methods: The maximum insertion torque of the cannulated and standard cortex screw systems were compared with the ultimate torsional strengths of the equipment. Pullout strength and ultimate tensile load of cannulated and standard cortex screws were also determined. Methods: Paired equine cadaver third metacarpal and third carpal bones. Methods: Maximum insertion torque and ultimate torsional strengths were...
Pinilla MJ, Tranquille CA, Blunden AS, Chang YM, Parkin TDH, Murray RC.A detailed histopathological study of the distal third metacarpal bone of Thoroughbred racehorses was undertaken to characterize lesions observed previously on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The bones were selected and grouped on the basis of MRI features. Representative sections in different planes were processed for histopathology. All lesions observed in the articular cartilage (AC) and subchondral bone (SCB) were recorded and graded with a scoring system, based partially on the Osteoarthritis Research Society International grading system. The scoring system included the severity of the ...
Liley H, Zhang J, Firth EC, Fernandez JW, Besier TF.The objective of this study was to describe the three-dimensional shape and subchondral bone mineral density (BMD) variation of the equine distal third metacarpal bone (MC3) using a statistical shape model. The association between form and function builds upon previous two-dimensional observations of MC3 epiphyseal structure. It was expected that the main source of variation would be an increase in overall MC3 bone size, correlated to an increase in subchondral BMD. Geometry and bone mineral density was obtained from CT image data of 40 healthy Thoroughbred horses. This was used to create a st...
Andrea CR, Stover SM, Galuppo LD, Taylor KT, Rakestraw PC.To compare screw insertion characteristics and pullout mechanical properties between self-tapping (ST) and non-self-tapping (NST) AO 4.5-mm cortical bone screws in adult equine third metacarpal bone (MC3). Methods: In vitro biomechanical experiment. Methods: Seven pairs of adult equine MC3. Methods: Bicortical holes were drilled transversely in proximal metaphyseal, diaphyseal, and distal metaphyseal locations of paired MC3. NST screws were inserted in pre-tapped holes in 3 sites of one bone pair, and ST screws were inserted in non-tapped holes of contralateral MC3. Tapping and screw insertion...
