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Topic:Musculoskeletal System
The musculoskeletal system in horses encompasses the bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints that facilitate movement and provide structural support. This system is essential for locomotion, athletic performance, and overall health in equine species. The equine skeleton consists of approximately 205 bones, which are connected by joints and supported by a network of muscles and connective tissues. Tendons connect muscles to bones, while ligaments link bones to other bones, contributing to joint stability. The musculoskeletal system is subject to various conditions, including injuries, degenerative diseases, and developmental disorders, which can impact a horse's mobility and performance. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, physiology, pathology, and treatment of musculoskeletal conditions in horses.
Influence of age on fibre type characteristics in the middle gluteal muscle of Andalusian foals. 34 Andalusian foals of both sexes were divided into three age-groups (A = mean age 1 month, B = 7 months, C = 14 months). Samples of the right m. gluteus medius were stained for m-ATPase and NADH-TR in order to determine fibre type composition and size as well as the relative area occupied by each type. Results revealed no statistically significant variation in the proportion of type I fibre among the three age-groups. Significant differences were recorded, however, for type II fibres; an increase in the proportion of IIA fibres was accompanied by a decrease in IIB ones, the difference being m...
Tension-band wiring and lag screw fixation of a transverse, comminuted fracture of a patella in a horse. A transverse, comminuted fracture of the patella was treated surgically by combining tension-band wiring and lag-screw fixation in a horse. Partial patellectomy or smaller detached fragments of the patella was performed. Satisfactory healing of the fracture was evident 10 weeks after surgery, and there were no complications. Implants were not removed. The horse was sound at a trot 4 months after surgery and was used for pleasure riding 8 months later.
Suspensory apparatus prosthesis in the horse. Part 1: In vitro mechanical properties. Mechanical properties of equine suspensory apparatus preparations and three braided synthetic prostheses were evaluated in vitro. Force versus displacement plots and failure modes were recorded from single load-to-failure testing in 18 cadaver limbs before and after replacement of each suspensory apparatus with a prosthesis. Mean load at failure, energy to failure, and stiffness values of polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) prostheses were lower than those of the suspensory apparatus and aramid prosthesis. The PTFE prosthesis failed by elongation or rupture of the prosthesis. Mechanical properties ...
Ultrastructural changes in skeletal muscle after fatiguing exercise. Thoroughbred horses were exercised to fatigue at 40, 85, and 100% of their maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) on a treadmill and completed a 1,600-m gallop on a track to identify the effect of exercise of various durations and intensities on the ultrastructure of mitochondria and sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) from the middle gluteal muscle. The percentage of the total area occupied by mitochondria and SR increased in electron micrographs of muscle samples collected at the termination of exercise and at 30 and 60 min of recovery compared with those collected before exercise. Mitochondrial area i...
The response of equine cortical bone to loading at strain rates experienced in vivo by the galloping horse. The behaviour of cortical bone under load is strain rate-dependent, i.e. it is dependent on the rate at which the load is applied. This is particularly relevant in the galloping horse since the strain rates experienced by the bone are far in excess of those recorded for any other species. In this study the effect of strain rates between 0.0001 and 1 sec-1 on the mechanical properties of equine cortical bone were assessed. Initially, increasing strain rates resulted in increased mechanical properties. Beyond a critical value, however, further increases in strain rate resulted in lower strain to...
Nonsurgical treatment of cubital subchondral cyst-like lesions in horses: seven cases (1983-1987). Subchondral cyst-like lesions of the cubital joint were diagnosed in 7 horses at the teaching hospital between 1983 and 1987. Diagnosis of the lesions was made by administration of intra-articular local anesthesia and/or radiographically. Initial treatment for all horses consisted of stall rest for 60 to 90 days. In addition, 2 horses were administered sodium hyaluronate intra-articularly, 1 horse was given injections of polysulfated glycosaminoglycans IM, and 1 horse was given phenylbutazone orally. Follow-up information was compiled 6 weeks to 4 years after initial examination. At the time o...
Follow-up of 28 horses with third metacarpal unicortical stress fractures following treatment with osteostixis. The results of 31 intracortical dorsal metacarpal stress fractures in 28 horses following unicortical osteostixis were reviewed. The incidence was predominately in the middle third of the lateral aspect of the left metacarpus, and males were affected more commonly. Approximately half of the surgical procedures were performed with the horse in the standing position. The mean times to return to training and racing were 4.25 and 6.9 months respectively. There was no correlation between time taken to return to racing and position of surgery. Complications experienced included lack of suture remova...
Total carnitine content of the middle gluteal muscle of thoroughbred horses: normal values, variability and effect of acute exercise. There was no detectable loss of total carnitine associated with intense exercise from the middle gluteal muscle of Thoroughbred horses. Measurements made on a single biopsy obtained during the course of a normal training and exercise programme may, therefore, be considered representative of the normal content at rest. The variability in total carnitine content within the normal muscle biopsy area amounted to 13.2 per cent of the normal mean content. Approximately 50 per cent of this variability could be attributed to covariation with citrate synthase, to which it was highly significantly corre...
Attempted reinnervation of the equine larynx using a muscle pedicle graft. Laryngeal hemiplegia was induced in 4 ponies via a left recurrent laryngeal neurectomy. Reinnervation of the denervated left cricoarytenoideus dorsalis muscle was then attempted using a muscle pedicle graft from the right cricoarytenoideus dorsalis muscle. In 3 ponies there was no return of abductor function and failure of graft survival. In the fourth pony there was return of abductor function along with survival of the muscle bridge, however, there was evidence of reinnervation across the neurectomy site. Muscle-to-muscle neurotization of the paralyzed equine larynx, utilizing the cricoaryte...
Inheritance of myotonic discharges in American quarter horses and the relationship to hyperkalemic periodic paralysis. Electromyography (EMG) was used to detect myotonic discharges in Quarter Horse breeding stock and to follow the results of mating horses with hyperkalemic periodic paralysis (HPP). The studies were performed on two brood mare farms. A total of six breeding stock showed myotonic discharges and 15 were nonmyotonic. Myotonic discharges were seen in five of six horses belonging to the blood line previously implicated as being predisposed to HPP. Two of these horses had shown clinical signs of HPP. Only one of 15 breeding horses unrelated to the HPP predisposed blood line showed myotonic discharges...
[The appearance of stress on the movement apparatus in dressage, jumping and versatility horses]. Jumping and military (three days events) horses are exposed, during sports activities, to a particularly high stress especially in the region of the extremities (limbs). The genesis of tendon, joint and bone diseases are traced in accordance to the centers of the load during movement sequence. A special statistics on injuries concerning the German competition horses does not exist yet. Out of the available statistics about the German competition horses it is not obvious that as a result of its use as sports horses a particular high loss occur among these horses.
[Physical performance–a comparison between horses and men]. During heavy exercise horses can increase oxygen uptake compared to resting conditions considerably more than man. Processes involved like respiration, heart size, cardiac output, oxygen transport capacity of the blood and oxygen release in the capillaries are discussed. Besides these advantages in the aerobic metabolism conditions for the anaerobic metabolism are also more advantageous in horses than in man. The portion of fast contracting muscle fibers with little fatigue-resistance and also some of the enzymes required for the anaerobic metabolism are higher in horses.
Elbow extensor muscles of the horse: postural and dynamic implications. Based on histochemical and immunohistochemical evidence, horse elbow extensor muscles are composed of two morphologically distinct muscle groups. The long and lateral heads of the triceps brachii are large, predominantly type II (presumed fast) muscles. The long and lateral heads of the triceps together account for 96% of the weight of the elbow extensors (long head of triceps is 81%). The long and lateral heads contain three histochemical fiber types: types I, IIa and IIb. Type I muscle fibers account for approximately 18 and 27% of the fibers in the long and lateral heads of the triceps, res...
Preliminary studies on the vascular anatomy of the equine superficial digital flexor tendon. The vascular and microvascular anatomy of normal equine superficial digital flexor tendons was studied by dissection of vinyl-perfused specimens and by microangiography on high detail film. The presence of an extensive intratendinous vascular latticework was confirmed, and a 'nutrient artery' described closely associated with the accessory ligament of the superficial digital flexor tendon (proximal check ligament). Circumferential stripping of the paratenon from the tendon to eliminate afferent vessels was performed bilaterally in three horses and unilaterally in a fourth, followed by a treadm...
Effects of treadmill exercise on cortical bone in the third metacarpus of young horses. The effects of exercise and relative inactivity on cortical bone were compared in young horses. Two groups were used; one was given a 14-week programme of exercise (n = 6) and the other kept as unexercised controls (n = 6). The first nine weeks of exercise involved trotting and cantering (2 to 4 km d-1 at speeds up to 12 m s-1) on a treadmill set at an incline of 3 degrees. Over the next five weeks the horses were trained at near maximal speeds (that is, up to 14.5 m s-1) with no incline of the treadmill. At the end of the programme marked differences in cortical porosity and distribution of s...
Muscarinic receptor subtypes in equine tracheal smooth muscle. Selective muscarinic receptor antagonists were used to identify muscarinic receptor subtypes in equine trachealis strips. The M1 receptor antagonist pirenzepine (10(-7) mol/L to 3 x 10(-5) mol/L) and the M3 receptor antagonist 4-diphenylacetoxy-N-methylpiperidine (4-DAMP, 10(-9) mol/L to 3 x 10(-7) mol/L3) dose dependently inhibited the contractile responses to electrical field stimulation (EFS) and exogenous acetylcholine (ACh). Schild plots yielded a pA2 value for pirenzepine vs ACh of 6.75 +/- 0.09, which is consistent with the affinity for M2 or M3 receptors, and a pA2 value for 4-DAMP vs ...
Capillary supply and fibre area in locomotor muscles of horse and steer–a comparison between histochemistry and electron microscopy. In order to investigate possible differences in variables defining capillary supply of skeletal muscle derived from two methods, the electron-microscopical and the amylase-PAS histochemical methods were applied in a study of horse and steer muscles. Samples from several locomoter muscles were taken at slaughter from one horse and one steer, divided into two and prepared separately for the two techniques. It was found that there was no difference between the two methods in the values for the capillary-to-fibre ratio. Values for mean fibre area, on the other hand, were significantly higher in th...
Bee venom melittin is a potent toxin for reducing the threshold for calcium-induced calcium release in human and equine skeletal muscle. The modulation of Ca2+ release by synthetic bee venom melittin was examined in equine and human terminal cisternae-containing fractions. Melittin (0.1 microM) decreased the threshold of Ca(2+)-induced Ca2+ release by 20% in equine muscle and by 36% in human muscle. If terminal cisternae fractions were first preloaded with Ca2+ to greater than about 75% of the threshold of Ca(2+)-induced Ca2+ release and then melittin added, an immediate and sustained release of Ca2+ occurred in preparations from both species. Addition of melittin after a Ca2+ preload of < 50% of the threshold of Ca(2+)-induced...
Linkage of hyperkalaemic periodic paralysis in quarter horses to the horse adult skeletal muscle sodium channel gene. A genetic disease observed in certain Quarter horses is hyperkalaemic periodic paralysis (HYPP). This disease causes attacks of paralysis which can be induced by ingestion of potassium. Recent studies have shown that HYPP in humans is due to single base changes within the adult skeletal muscle sodium channel gene. A large Quarter horse pedigree segregating dominant HYPP was studied to determine if mutations of the sodium channel gene are similarly responsible for HYPP in horses. We used cross-species, PCR-mediated, cDNA cloning and sequencing of the horse adult skeletal muscle sodium channel a...
Polysaccharide storage myopathy associated with recurrent exertional rhabdomyolysis in horses. A polysaccharide storage myopathy is described in nine Quarterhorses, Quarterhorse crossbreds, American Paints and Appaloosa horses which had a history of recurrent exertional rhabdomyolysis. Muscle biopsies were characterized by high muscle glycogen concentrations with up to 5% of type 2 muscle fibers containing inclusions which stained positively with the periodic acid Schiff (PAS) stain. The inclusions were classified as an acid mucopolysaccharide, based on their histochemical staining characteristics. Ultrastructural studies revealed that the inclusions were composed of beta glycogen parti...
Standing musculoskeletal surgery. Indications for performing orthopedic surgery on the standing horse include inability to tolerate general anesthesia, risk of worsening an injury during recovery from anesthesia, and cost. The surgeon should be aware that performing surgery in the standing horse can be more demanding and require more experience than the same procedures when the time and convenience of general anesthesia are available. Improved sedatives and analgesics have allowed more latitude because the horses now are more tolerant than when older agents were used. Common sense should be applied to each situation before the...
An ultrasonographic off-set system for examination of equine tendons and ligaments. In a dorsal plane, an improved ultrasonographic off-set system was used to obtain serial ultrasonographic images with enhanced anatomic and pathologic detail of the tendons, ligaments, and associated structures of the limbs of 100 horses. The off-set provided good acoustic coupling between a linear array ultrasonographic transducer and the horse's skin. A water-soluble gel contained within the off-set had acoustic properties similar to those of mammalian soft tissues.
Bone biopsy in the horse. 3. Normal histomorphometric data according to age and sex. Histomorphometrical analysis of bone biopsies from the wing of ilium in 35 clinically normal horses are reported according to age. The biopsies were collected from 20 mixed-bred foals (mean age 6 +/- 1 months) and 15 older horses (mean age 73 +/- 62 months). No gender differences were found in the group of foals examined, but a significant difference (p less than 0.001) in a number of the primary measurements occurred between them and the older horses. The parameters which altered with age were the extent of osteoid surface (OS/BS), the extent of resorption (erosion) surface (ES/BS), the osteo...
Exercise-induced phospholipid degradation in the equine skeletal muscle and erythrocytes. To understand the pathogenesis of equine exercise-induced myopathies and hemolysis, changes of phospholipid peroxidation products in the equine middle gluteal muscle and erythrocytes following the high-speed treadmill exercise were studied. In the skeletal muscle, the peroxidized phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) were increased at 24 hours after the exercise. The malondialdehydes (MDAs) were also increased as the protein-bound MDAs following exercise. In the erythrocytes, the peroxidized PE were significantly decreased at 24 hours after the exercise. The protein-bound MDAs were significantly incre...
Risk factors associated with injuries in thoroughbred horses. A case-control study was conducted on Thoroughbred horses to identify factors associated with the risk of breakdown on racetracks. A total of 310 cases (breakdowns) were identified from the Horse Identification Department records kept by the chief examining veterinarian of New York Racing Association. For each case, two control horses were selected randomly from the Daily Racing Form Inc. records. Multiple logistic regression analysis was used to identify and quantify the risk of factors associated with breakdown, while simultaneously controlling for the effect of other putative factors. Facto...
Electromagnetic stimulation of bone repair: a histomorphometric study. The effect of pulsing electromagnetic fields (PEMFs) on bone repair was studied in principal metacarpal bones of eight adult male horses: Six horses were treated with PEMFs, and two horses were untreated. In treated horses, Helmholtz coils were applied during a 60-day period to the left metacarpal bones, bored with eight holes of equal diameter and depth, from the middiaphysis toward the distal metaphysis. Eight equal holes bored in the right metacarpal, surrounded by unactivated Helmholtz coils, were taken as controls. The two untreated horses were taken as additional control. The results of ...
