The physiology of horses encompasses the study of the biological functions and processes that occur within the equine body. This includes the examination of various systems such as the cardiovascular, respiratory, musculoskeletal, digestive, and nervous systems. Understanding equine physiology is essential for comprehending how horses adapt to different environmental conditions, perform physical activities, and respond to health challenges. Research in this field often focuses on the mechanisms of energy metabolism, thermoregulation, and muscle function during exercise, as well as the physiological responses to stress and disease. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the diverse aspects of equine physiology, providing insights into the biological processes that support the health and performance of horses.
Bergsten G, Holmbäck R, Lindberg P.Blood Se of adult horses was 26.1, 25.8, and 27.0 ng/ml (mean values at 3 farms), where the Se of food was about 20 ng/g dry substance. Experimental adult horses which received about 41 ng Se/g food showed 45.3 ng/ml blood. At low Se intake suckling foals show higher blood Se than mares, but with high Se intake, the opposite will occur. This is reflected in milk Se, which raises but slowly with rise of mare’s blood Se. Se in blood plasma and in blood corpuscles is on the same level. The effect of various dose levels of Se on blood Se was studied: From 1.5 to 6 mg Se/week, blood Se rose rathe...
Ek N.A method for the rapid electrophoresis on a cellulose acetate membrane of serum proteins from horses, sheep and pigs is discussed. The various main globulin fractions in the serum of these animals were experimentally identified. Normal values for the percentage composition of serum from normal horses, sheep and pigs were calculated. In the horse there was great individual variation in the shape of the β-fraction, assumed to be due to different transferrin types. The mean value for β-globulin of 19.5 % in the horse was higher than for the other two species. The albumin percentage was highest ...
Müller F, Segerling M.Complement activity in the serum of eight species has been studied in two ways: by immobilization of sensitized with human or rabbit antibody and by haemolysis of sheep red cells sensitized with rabbit antibody. Serum of the pig, monkey and man was actively haemolytic but contained a heatlabile factor that immobilized unsensitized in the presence of guinea-pig complement and precluded the detection of immune immobilizing activity. Sera of other species, although without action on unsensitized treponemes, even with added guinea-pig complement, differed in their relative haemolytic and immobil...
Allen TE, Bligh J.1. The temporal patterns of cutaneous water vapour loss from the skin of the sheep, goat, ox, horse, donkey and llama during exposure to 40°C Ta and during i.v. injections and infusions of adrenaline are examined.
2. It is concluded that there are marked species variations in the extent to which the discharge of sweat is affected by periodic contractions of the myoepithelium, or by simple displacement of fluid from the filled lumen as more fluid is secreted into it.
Basrur PK, Kanagawa H, Gilman JP.Cytogenetic and histological studies have been carried out on an intersex horse which was clinically diagnosed as a cryptorchid. The horse had the general conformation of a stallion but the external genitalia included a well developed vulva and a penis. The right testis which was descended was devoid of germ cells and the left "gonad" located in the cavum vaginale contained neither testicular nor ovarian tissue. The male duct system on both sides were relatively well developed despite the absence of a testis on the left side. Chromosome analysis on cultured cells from the descended testis reve...
Srivastava SK, Beutler E.1. Erythrocytes from normal and glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase-deficient humans were subjected to hydrogen peroxide diffusion to oxidize the GSH. Studies were carried out in the presence and absence of chromate to inhibit glutathione reductase and with or without the addition of glucose. 2. The GSH content of erythrocytes from other species was oxidized by subjecting them to hydrogen peroxide diffusion in the presence of chromate and glucose. 3. Chromate (1.3mm) inhibited glutathione reductase by about 80%, whereas glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, hexokin...
Al-Wabel NA.Semicarbazide-sensitive amine oxidase (SSAO) activity was measured spectrophotometrically using benzylamine as a substrate, in the serum of healthy males and females of horses, camels, cattle, sheep and goats. The animals were born and raised in the same area, and the blood collection was made on the same day to avoid variations. Also the concentrations of protein and copper were measured in the same samples. There were no significant gender-related differences in SSAO activity between the tested animals regardless of species. Activities of SSAO in either male or female of horse were significa...
Gasthuys F, De Moor A, Parmentier D.The influence of digoxin (0.01 mg/kg) given as an intravenous bolus followed by dopamine at different infusion rates (1.25, 2.5 and 5.0 micrograms/kg/min) on the cardiovascular depression during a standard halothane anaesthesia was studied in dorsally recumbent ventilated ponies. Preanaesthetic digitalization induced no clear positive cardiovascular effects over 30 minutes, except for non-significant increases in mean pulmonary artery pressure and total pulmonary resistance. These changes were probably time-related. No specific side-effects related to the fast intravenous digitalization were n...
Le Goff D, Pastier D, Hannan Y, Petit E, Ayrault-Jarrier M, Nouvelot A.1. Equine lipoproteins were isolated from plasma by density gradient ultracentrifugation and apolipoprotein composition determined by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. 2. VLDL and IDL were present at low concentration (0.2 mg/ml). Two apoB components of Mr corresponding to human apoB-100 and one apoB-48-like component were represented in VLDL fraction. 3. LDL-1 and LDL-2 subfractions have displayed an almost equal concentration (0.4 mg/ml). Two apoB-100-like components were the major apolipoproteins in each fraction. Small amounts of apoB-48-like component were detectable in LDL-1 and LD...
Reginato GM, Xavier NV, Alonso BB, Lima DP, Pereira Sirqueira TC, Carregaro AB.The study evaluated the effect of a 1/10 dose of flunixin meglumine administered into the governing vessel 1 (GV1) acupoint in horses that underwent castration. Twenty animals received 0.02 mg/kg detomidine intravenously, followed by 2.2 mg/kg ketamine and 0.1 mg/kg diazepam by the same route, and also a local anesthesia with 30 mL lidocaine. As postoperative analgesia, the animals received 1.1 mg/kg flunixin meglumine IV (FIV) or 0.11 mg/kg flunixin meglumine into the GV1 acupoint (FGV). Behavioral parameters were assessed 12 hours before the procedure (baseline) and at 4, 6, 12, and 2...
Brendemuehl JP, Cross DL.The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of prolonged administration of the dopamine antagonist domperidone on follicular development, ovulation and endocrine profiles in anoestrous mares. Anoestrous mares (n=16) were maintained under natural photoperiod and ambient temperature. Eight of the mares were treated with domperidone each day from 15 January until the first ovulation of the year. The mean number and size of follicles > or =20 mm in diameter were significantly greater in domperidone-treated mares than in control mares by day 14 of treatment. The day of first ovulati...
Gossett KA, McCoy DJ, Jowett PL, Kearney MT.Nitrofurazone solution containing 0.2% nitrofurazone and 99.8% polyethylene glycol was given to 4 healthy horses (2 L in 2 L of lactated Ringer solution, intraperitoneally). Horses developed hypovolemia, hyperosmolality, and mixed respiratory and metabolic acidosis. These changes were largely attributable to polyethylene glycol, but a contribution of nitrofurazone cannot be excluded. Intraperitoneal infusion of nitrofurazone solution in horses is contraindicated.
Geschwind II, Dewey R, Hughes JP, Evans JW, Stabenfeldt GH.Plasma levels of LH were determined by heterologous radioimmunoassay utilizing highly purified equine LH as standard. Samples were taken regularly from eleven mares for twenty-six oestrous cycles over a period of 10 weeks. The mean cycle length was 20-5 +/- 3-1 (S.D.) days, and ovulation occurred on average 4-3 +/- 1-6 (S.D.) days from the time heat was first detected. Levels of LH were persistently low from Days 5 to 16 of the cycle (ovulation = Day 0). They then increased slowly over a number of days and continued to rise beyond the levels observed at any time during the immediate preovulato...
Campos Schweitzer A, Mespoulhès-Rivière C, Möller D, Ducharme N, Genton M, Farfan M, Rossignol F.Selective laryngeal reinnervation using the first and second cervical nerve (C1C2) is a treatment option for recurrent laryngeal neuropathy that aims to restore the function of the cricoarytenoideus dorsalis (CAD) muscle. Despite the technique's satisfying success rate, it has several limitations. These triggered the search for another potential donor nerve that could reduce CAD muscle fatigue and shorten rehabilitation. The ventral branch of the spinal accessory nerve, providing motor innervation to the sternomandibularis (SM) muscle, was identified as a potentially well-adapted nerve. Object...
Soma LR, Uboh CE, Guan F, Moate P, Luo Y, Teleis D, Li R, Birks EK, Rudy JA, Tsang DS.The pharmacokinetics of clenbuterol (CLB) following a single intravenous (i.v.) and oral (p.o.) administration twice daily for 7 days were investigated in thoroughbred horses. The plasma concentrations of CLB following i.v. administration declined mono-exponentially with a median elimination half-life (t(1/2k)) of 9.2 h, area under the time-concentration curve (AUC) of 12.4 ng.h/mL, and a zero-time concentration of 1.04 ng/mL. Volume of distribution (V(d)) was 1616.0 mL/kg and plasma clearance (Cl) was 120.0 mL/h/kg. The terminal portion of the plasma curve following multiple p.o. administrati...
Guan F, Uboh CE, Soma LR, Luo Y, Jahr JS, Driessen B.Oxyglobin (OXY) and Hemopure (HMP) are produced from bovine hemoglobin (Hb) and were developed for the treatment of anemia in animal and human patients, respectively. Hemolink (HML) is a blood substitute of human Hb origin under development. The ability of these agents to carry oxygen in circulating blood and their promise to improve oxygen delivery to tissues supports the potential for their abuse in equine and human athletes. To deter athletes from abuse of these agents, a method has been developed for the detection, confirmation and quantification of OXY, HMP, and HML in equine and human pl...
Watney GC, Watkins SB, Hall LW.The pressure flow characteristics of a demand valve which has been suggested to be suitable for use in anaesthetised horses were determined at a range of flow rates commonly encountered in equine anaesthesia. The resistance of the valve was found to be very much greater than the resistance of normal large animal anaesthetic apparatus or the equine lower respiratory tract. The effects of the valve on pulmonary ventilation were investigated in seven anaesthetised, intubated horses. Respiratory rate and dynamic compliance were unaffected by connection of the valve but mean tidal and minute volume...
Boyle MS, Skidmore J, Zhang J, Cox JE.The effect of long-term treatment of stallions with a powerful gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) analogue was investigated. In the first part of the study, 9 sexually mature pony stallions were allocated to 1 of 3 groups, each of which was treated with 240 micrograms or 60 micrograms Buserelin per day administered by subcutaneously sited osmotic pumps or 30-50 micrograms Buserelin per day via solid, slow-release implants injected subcutaneously. Peripheral blood plasma and serum samples were collected frequently and assayed for follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (L...
Tucker KE, Henderson KA, Duby RT.Twenty-three follicles were collected from 14 mares on specific days and grouped to represent follicles from early (Group 1; n = 6), mid (Group 2; n = 11) and late (Group 3; n = 6) oestrus, as described previously (Tucker et al., 1988). Isolated granulosa cells (GC) from each follicle were cultured in multiwell plates containing either Eagle's Minimum Essential Medium (MEM) alone, eLH (300 ng/ml), eFSH (300 ng/ml) or eLH + eFSH (300 ng/ml each), in the presence or absence of 0.5 microM testosterone. Media were collected and replaced at 24 h of culture, and 24 h later, media were again collecte...
Nett TM, Shoemaker CF, Squires EL.High concentrations of estrogens in the peripheral circulation during late gestation inhibit synthesis of LH and markedly reduce pituitary content of LH at the end of pregnancy in most domestic species. Because blood concentrations of estrogen peak shortly before mid-gestation in the mare and then gradually decrease until parturition, we hypothesized that pituitary content of LH may increase during late gestation. To test this hypothesis 10 horse mares were challenged with a maximally stimulatory dose (2 micrograms/kg) of GnRH on d 240 and 320 of gestation and d 3 after parturition. A separate...
Cooley JL, Hinchcliff KW, McKeever KH, Lamb DR, Muir WW.Effects of furosemide administration on exertion-induced changes in plasma renin activity and plasma concentrations of atrial natriuretic peptide and aldosterone in horses during sustained submaximal exertion were examined. Furosemide (1 mg/kg of body weight) or heparinized saline solution was administered IV to each of 6 mares not conditioned to exercise, either 4 hours or 2 minutes before 60 minutes of sustained submaximal running on a treadmill. Horses ran at a speed that induced heart rate approximately 65% of maximal after saline treatment. After 15 minutes of running, furosemide suppress...
Patterson PH, Coon CN, Hughes IM.Eighteen mature horses were used to study proteins requirements of working horses. Treatments included intense exercise, medium exercise and maintenance in a 3 X 3 factorial arrangement with three levels of calculated dietary crude protein (CP; 8.5, 7.0 and 5.5%). The horses were on the various exercise-protein treatments for 60 d, then fasted 4 d to evaluate their N status after the treatment period. Exercise had no significant effect on body weight over the feeding and fasting periods. No one exercise or protein treatment expressed the classical low plasma albumin or total protein concentrat...
Marcum JA, Highsmith RF, Kline DL.Complete activation of purified horse plasminogen to plasmin was obtained with a 1:10 molar ratio of streptokinase to plasminogen after 5 min of incubation at 37 degrees C. At a 1:1 molar ratio, maximal activity did not appear until 15-30 min, while at a ratio of 6:1 complete activation was delayed for 120-180 min. Gel filtration studies of isotopically labeled streptokinase and horse plasminogen suggest that the delay was due to impaired formation of a streptokinase-plasminogen complex. The predominant streptokinase moiety within the streptokinase-plasmin complex which forms from the streptok...
Takehana K, Abe M, Iwasa K, Hiraga T.Complex carbohydrates were examined in glandular cells of the horse duodenal gland by using lectin histochemical techniques. In the horse, the duodenal gland was distributed in the area from the uppermost part of the small intestine to a point about 6m caudal to the pylorus. It consisted of two types of cells, mucous and serous cells. The former was found in glands distributed almost all over this part, but the latter was present in glands distributed restrictedly to the uppermost part of the small intestine at a point about 10 cm caudal to the pylorus. The cytoplasm of the mucous cell contain...
Maher MA, Ahmad IM.The current study was performed on ten adult Egyptian donkeys of both sexes for anatomical and radiographic studies in addition to six other donkeys for enzymatic, biochemical and statistical analysis. The aim was to illustrate the normal hepatic arterial and biliary distribution using different anatomic techniques and radiographic imaging besides, establishing an accurate laboratory profile specific for donkeys that used as standard indicators for hepatobiliary dysfunction. The right branch of the hepatic artery in donkey forms a curved arch erupting five branches, unlike the left branch that...
Craig AM, Blythe LL, Rowe KE, Lassen ED, Walker LL.An oral vitamin E absorption test used in human beings was modified for use in horses. The most appropriate techniques with which to measure gastrointestinal tract absorption of vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol) in horses were developed. Vitamin E was administered orally, and serum values of alpha-tocopherol were measured by use of high-performance liquid chromatography at 0, 3, 6, 9, 12, and 24 hours after vitamin E administration. Variables included comparison of 2 dosages (45 and 90 IU/kg of body weight), routes of administration, and absorption dynamics of 3 preparations of dl-alpha-tocopherol....
Lapin DR, Ginther OJ.A crude equine pituitary ethanol extract (EE) was used to induce single and miltiple ovulations in seasonally anovulatory pony mares 3-15 years of age. 12 mares were injected daily for 14 days with EE; 6 of the EE-treated mares were also treated with human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), and 6 control mares received saline vehicle only. In a 2nd experiment designed to determine if EE treatment could induce multiple ovulations in seasonally ovulatory mares, 7 mares were treated during diestrus, 7 mares were treated beginning on Day 1 of estrus, and 7 remained untreated. The results of experiment ...
Eades SC, Moore JN.Changes in lateral cecal arterial blood flow, mean internal carotid arterial pressure, and heart rate caused by nasogastric administration of fenoldopam (3, 6, and 9 mg/kg of body weight), a selective agonist of dopaminergic receptors, were recorded in 7 healthy horses. Cecal arterial blood flow was significantly increased within 30 minutes after administration of fenoldopam at all 3 dosages, with the peak increases from baseline (67.8 +/- 17.5 ml/min) being 125 +/- 28, 120 +/- 22, and 153 +/- 32 ml/min for 3, 6, and 9 mg/kg, respectively. Although carotid arterial pressure did not change sign...
Respiratory diseases are a major cause of morbidity and mortality in the horses of all ages including foals. There is limited understanding of the expression of immune molecules such as tetraspanins and surfactant proteins (SP) and the regulation of the immune responses in the lungs of the foals. Therefore, the expression of CD9, SP-A and SP-D in foal lungs was examined. Results: Lungs from one day old (n = 6) and 30 days old (n = 5) foals were examined for the expression of CD9, SP-A, and SP-D with immunohistology and Western blots. Western blot data showed significant increase in the...
Schauer SN, Briant C, Ottogalli M, Decourt C, Handel IG, Donadeu FX.This study was conducted to test the hypothesis that supplementation of growing follicles with LH during the early spring transitional period would promote the development of steroidogenically active, dominant follicles with the ability to respond to an ovulatory dose of hCG. Mares during early transition were randomly assigned to receive a subovulatory dose of equine LH (in the form of a purified equine pituitary fraction) or saline (transitional control; n = 7 mares per group) following ablation of all follicles >15 mm. Treatments were administered intravenously every 12 h from the day th...
Gill KK, Kroeger EA.Equine airway smooth muscle is innervated by vagal efferents and, in addition, displays spontaneous mechanical activity. The preparation thus appears to contain at least two discrete excitable components, the cholinergic neural elements and the smooth muscle membrane. Indomethacin (INDO), a cyclooxygenase (CO) inhibitor, exerts a considerable potentiation of function in this preparation. The latter may be effected indirectly, through loss of the inhibitory effect of endogenous prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) on neural acetylcholine release and through direct effects on smooth muscle of the generally a...
Sandin A, Girma K, Sjöholm B, Lindholm A, Nilsson G.Plasma gastrin concentrations were determined in 6 Standardbreds (4 geldings and 2 mares) after 3 different meals consisting of unlimited amounts of hay (8-9 kg per horse), a restricted amount of hay (0.6 kg/100 kg body-weight) and grain (0.2 kg/100 kg body-weight) in combination or of grain alone (0.2 kg/100 kg body-weight). In another series of experiments the possible role of gastrin as a stress hormone was investigated. Plasma gastrin and cortisol concentrations were determined during fasting and compared with concentrations during hay feeding. In addition, gastrin and cortisol concentrati...
Butcher MT, Bertram JE, Syme DA, Hermanson JW, Chase PB.The digital flexors of horses must produce high force to support the body weight during running, and a need for these muscles to generate power is likely limited during locomotion over level ground. Measurements of power output from horse muscle fibers close to physiological temperatures, and when cyclic strain is imposed, will help to better understand the in vivo performance of the muscles as power absorbers and generators. Skinned fibers from the deep (DDF) and superficial (SDF) digital flexors, and the soleus (SOL) underwent sinusoidal oscillations in length over a range of frequencies (0....
La Rosa L, Twele L, Duchateau L, Gasthuys F, Kästner SB, Schauvliege S.A bolus of 50 mg kg MgSO (treatment Mg) or the same volume of saline (treatment S) was infused over 15 minutes in 5 adult healthy horses. T0 was the end of the infusion. Physiological parameters were recorded throughout the study period. Measurements of electrical, thermal, and mechanical nociceptive thresholds were performed at the pelvic limbs at baseline (before T0), and at specific timepoints. Blood samples were taken at fixed timepoints before, during and until 12 hours after the infusion. For statistical analysis, the 95% confidence intervals (CI's) for the differences in nociceptive th...
van Niekerk HP, Couvaras S.The possibility of including sodium hydroxide-treated lucerne hay as a constituent in rations for horses was investigated by measuring its effect on the performance and certain bloodcomponents of growing foals. As no adverse effects were found it is concluded that further investigation is necessary to see whether the inclusion of low grade-treated roughages in the ration of horses would be of economic significance.
Foreman JH.Metabolic causes of exercise intolerance can be subtle and difficult to document in horses. Because of increased metabolic rate in exercising muscle, most metabolic causes of exercise intolerance are clinically manifested by muscle abnormalities such as ER. Newer causes of ER are being documented by current research and are summarized in the article on muscular causes of equine exercise intolerance. Endocrine causes of exercise intolerance have been poorly documented, but recent work has shown the detrimental effects of hypothyroidism on exercise tolerance in horses. Many metabolic manifestati...
