Semen preservation involves the collection, processing, and storage of stallion semen for future use in artificial insemination. This practice enables the extension of genetic material across geographical boundaries and temporal constraints. The preservation process typically includes semen evaluation, dilution with extenders, cooling, and sometimes cryopreservation. Factors such as semen quality, extender composition, and storage conditions influence the success of preservation. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore techniques, challenges, and advancements in the field of equine semen preservation, focusing on optimizing fertility outcomes and extending the reproductive lifespan of stallions.
Merkt H.The use and techniques of artificial insemination for horses in Germany over the last 30 years is described. Artificial insemination appears to produce pregnancy percentages equal to those from normal breeding methods and its continued availability under veterinary supervision is recommended in conditions where disease, disability or distance debar normal service.
Merkt H.The use and techniques of artificial insemination for horses in Germany over the last 30 years is described. Artificial insemination appears to produce pregnancy percentages equal to those from normal breeding methods and its continued availability under veterinary supervision is recommended in conditions where disease, disability or distance debar normal service.
Allen WR, Bowen JM, Frank CJ, Jeffcott LB, Rossdale PD.This short review article describes the various techniques currently available for artificial insemination in the horse. The collection and use of raw and extended semen is discussed together with the more recent developments in freezing semen. The expected conception rates with both fresh and frozen semen are quoted. The possible benefits in disease control and stud management are discussed, as well as the difficulties in controlling the use of A.I. from the Breed Registration Authorities point of view.
Dott HM, Foster GC.Semen from boar, bull, ram, rabbit, reindeer and stallion was diluted in formol citrate or formol saline and stained with eosinnigrosin. The proportion of eosinophilic spermatozoa did not differ from that in fresh semen after storage for 48 hr in the formol diluent at temperatures ranging from 4 degrees C to 40 degrees C. Some samples were kept for periods up to 3 weeks with very little increase in the proportion of eosinophilic spermatozoa.
Sullivan JJ, Pickett BW.Approximately 1 week was required to stabilize the extragonadal sperm reserves in stallions ejaculated daily for 10 weeks. The true daily sperm output of a stallion was equal to the mean daily sperm output of seven ejaculates +/- 1-35 X 10(9) spermatozoa. Mean concentrations of spermatozoa/ml and number of spermatozoa/ejaculate were higher (P less than 0-01) for X1 and X3/week ejaculation frequencies than for a X6/week frequency. Sperm output/week was nearly identical for a X6/week frequency. Sperm output/week was nearly identical for the X3 and X6 frequencies and higher (P less than 0-01) tha...
Merkt H, Klug E, Krause D, Bader H.Stallion semen frozen by the pellet method showed no significant loss of sperm motility and fertility over long periods of storage in liquid nitrogen. Eighteen of thirty mares conceived after insemination with semen recovered in nine ejaculates from seven stallions and stored for 18 months to 7 years.
Klug E, Treu H, Hillmann H, Heinze H.Artificial insemination using deep-frozen semen was performed on 116 mares in 1973 using twelve ejaculates from eight stallions of the Hanoverian breed. Despite the fact that the quality of the semen used was poor, the majority of the mares inseminated were subfertile and some mares were inseminated during one oestrus only, 44% nevertheless conceived and gave birth to live foals. Of a small group of ten mares inseminated in the same year with fresh semen, seven conceived.
Bielański W.Choice of the best methods for semen examination is dictated by the purpose of the examination, whether it be to assess the fertility of an individual stallion or to evaluate individual semen samples for routine purposes. In the author's experience of examining stallion semen, emphasis should be placed upon morphological examination, sperm cinematography and survival tests in vitro. Special problems concerning examination of frozen semen are discussed and the ultrastructure of spermatozoa frozen in the presence and absence of glycerol is described.
Parker WG, Sullivan JJ, Larson LL.The diagnostic value of rectal palpation and immunological assay of PMSG was tested at different stages of pregnancy in mares inseminated with frozen semen in three separate studies. The results were based on foaling success and particular attention was paid to the numbers of inconsistent results obtained by the two tests. Generally, the number of false positive diagnoses was lower for the immunological assay than for palpation in early pregnancy (Days 40 to 60) and the relationship became reversed later in gestation.
Burns SJ, Simpson RB, Snell JR.Sterile equipment was used to collect ten ejaculates from each of ten normal stallions and quantitative and qualitative bacterial counts were made within 15 min after collection. The mean bacterial population in undiluted semen was found to be 573,000 +/- 374,000 organisms/ml. The bacterial content of semen diluted with two parts sterile physiological saline, or with two parts of a cream-gelatin extender, was measured within 15 min after collection and again after 2 hr at 25 degrees C. The number of bacteria was slightly increased in the saline after 2 hr, but 1 93% and 99% reduction occurred ...
Nishikawa Y.Retention of high motility of horse spermatozoa preserved at 4 degrees C was improved by a semen extender. Raw semen preserved for 2 to 8 hr at 4 degrees C gave an average conception rate of 67-3% but preservation for 1 to 2 days gave an extremely low conception rate. The conception rate from deep-frozen semen during 8 years was 56-3%.
Pace MM, Sullivan JJ.Fertilization rate was highest in mares inseminated with frozen semen within 12 hr of ovulation. Foaling rate was improved (P less than 0-05) by increasing the number of motile spermatozoa inseminated from 40 X 10(6) to 80 X 10(6) but was not further improved by increasing the number to 160 X 10(6) or by increasing the frequency of insemination from once to twice daily. The fertilizing capacity of spermatozoa frozen in one of the hydrogen ion extenders studied was dependent upon relative osmotic pressure and method of freezing (ampoules or pellets). Adjusting glycerol concentration from 7% to ...
Tischner M.Artificial insemination (A.I.) of mares in Poland has not yet been widely applied. Initial attempts were made by research groups between 1945 and 1955 but A.I. of mares was only introduced into the normal practice of A.I. Centres during 1964-67. Intensive research into methods for preserving stallion semen in liquid nitrogen has been undertaken since 1968. Of the total of 3734 mares artificially inseminated in Poland since 1945, 350 were inseminated with frozen semen. The slow progress of A.I. in horses is imputed to the small numbers of people involved in the work, to the conservation of the ...
Frhr J, Lepel V.A high fertility rate depends on many different factors and is always related to inheritance and enviorment. The successful feritly control system in the German Thoroughbred breeding industry shows that fertility can be increased by good management and veterinary supervision. The insemination of horses with frozen semen is discussed. Replacement of natural service by A.I. with frozen semen is not generally accepted in horsebreeding, as the conditions are entirely different from cattle breeding. However, there are several ways in which A.I. can be assistance in stud management.
Pickett BW, Sullivan JJ, Byers WW, Pace MM, Remmenga EE.The effect of centrifugation of diluted and undiluted semen on equine and bovine spermatozoan motility and fertility was examined, as was the effect of seminal plasma and dilution on stallion spermatozoa during incubation before and after freezing. Centrifugation at 370 g or 829 g was not detrimental (P greater than 0.05) to prefreeze or postfreeze motility if a final concentration of 10% seminal plasma was present. A reduction of seminal plasma from 10% to 2% significantly (P smaller than 0.05) reduced motility. A centrifugal force of 956 g significantly reduced prefreeze but not postfreeze m...
Dell'aquila ME, Fusco S, Lacalandra GM, Maritato F.The aim of this study was to develope an efficient and reproducible procedure for in vitro maturation (IVM) and fertilization (IVF) in the horse. Cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs) recovered from the ovaries of mares slaughtered during the breeding season were morphologically evaluated, and those showing a compact cumulus and homogeneously appearing cytoplasm were selected for culture. Effects on the maturation of estrous mare serum (EMS) versus estrous cow serum (ECS) as medium supplement were also evaluated (Experiment 1). In Experiment 2, the fertilization of in vitro matured oocytes with froz...
Sampaio BFB, Nogueira BG, Souza MIL, Silva EVDCE, Zúccari CESN.The aim of this experiment was to evaluate the effects of adding ascorbic acid 2-glucoside (AA2G), a water-soluble antioxidant and stable derivative of ascorbate, to the semen extender and compare it to the addition of vitamin C (Vit. C) and the fat-soluble antioxidant α-tocopherol (α-Toh), both individually and in combination, on the seminal variables of equine sperm submitted to cooling for 72 h. We used two ejaculates from 10 stallions and evaluated them for motility, membrane integrity, chromatin fragmentation, mitochondrial activity and lipid peroxidation. In the analysis of lipid pero...
Harnal VK, Wildt DE, Bird DM, Monfort SL, Ballou JD.Genome resource banks (GRBs) and assisted reproductive techniques are increasingly recognized as useful tools for the management and conservation of biodiversity, including endangered species. Cryotechnology permits long-term storage of valuable genetic material. Although, the actual application to endangered species management requires technical knowledge about sperm freezing and thawing, a systematic understanding of the quantitative impacts of various germ plasm storage and use scenarios is also mandatory. In this study, various GRB strategies were analyzed using the historical data from th...
Vieira LA, Matás C, Torrecillas A, Saez F, Gadea J.Seminal plasma (SP) plays a crucial role in sperm protection and functionality. However, the effect of SP on the sperm cryopreservation is dependent on the stallion and SP composition. The use of epididymal spermatozoa incubated in the presence of SP could help the identification of the components of SP that are able to confer protection upon the spermatozoa during freezing. The aims of this study were (i) to identify SP components involved in the potential protection of epididymal spermatozoa during the freeze-thawing process and (ii) to identify and evaluate the proteins likely related to sp...
Oliveira CH, Vasconcelos AB, Souza FA, Martins-Filho OA, Silva MX, Varago FC, Lagares MA.Addition of cholesterol to sperm membranes improved equine sperm stability during semen cryopreservation; however, it also reduced in vivo fertility. The objective of the present study was to determine the effects of adding cholesterol to stallion sperm prior to freezing, and subsequently removing it from frozen-thawed sperm. Semen from 12 stallions was subjected to four treatments: (T1) control, semen was diluted with Kenney extender, centrifuged, and resuspended to 100 x 10(6)spermatozoa/mL in INRA 82 freezing extender, packaged into 0.5-mL straws, cooled to 5 degrees C, and cryopreserved in...
Cran DG.Many tens of thousands of calves resulting from artificial insemination (AI) have been born worldwide after XY sperm separation and commercial production is underway in several countries. Accuracy of sex selection is some 90% and can be achieved both in research facilities and at AI studs in rural locations. Most facilities sort X- sperm which have also be utilised for superovulation and embryo transfer projects and for in vitro fertilisation (IVF) as well as AI. Sort rates of some 15 x 10(6) sperm/h are currently achievable and are used for low dose insemination, generally at 2 x 10(6) frozen...
Martins HS, Souza MR, Penna CF, da Silva GC, Côrtes SF, Stahlberg R, Lagares MA.Cooled semen has been used routinely to prolong sperm viability until artificial insemination time. However, spermatozoa are subjected to oxidative stress. The aim of the present work was to investigate the protective and antioxidant effect of the milk proteins lactoferrin (Lf) and caseinate added to equine semen cooling extenders. Semen from six stallions was cooled at 5 °C after resuspension with C1) milk- and glucose-based, C2) 0.6% caseinate, C3) C2 + Lf 200 μg ml-1 , C4) C2 + Lf 500 μg ml-1 and C5) C2 + Lf 1000 μg ml-1 extenders, and kept at 5 °C for 24 h. Sperm motili...
Ellington JE, Ball BA, Blue BJ, Wilker CE.Reliable capacitation of equine spermatozoa has been a major obstacle in the development of equine in vitro fertilization. Experiments were done to compare in vitro capacitation of equine spermatozoa by use of heparin/caffeine, calcium ionophore, uterine tube epithelial cell (UTEC)-conditioned medium, and direct culturing of spermatozoa with UTEC (coculturing). Capacitation-like changes, as determined by chlortetracycline membrane staining patterns, developed with UTEC-conditioned medium and coculturing, equivalent to that with calcium ionophore. Both of these treatments induced more (P < 0.05...
Palm F, Walter I, Budik S, Kolodziejek J, Nowotny N, Aurich C.After artificial insemination or mating an inflammatory response is induced by spermatozoa and components of the inseminate or ejaculate. In order to investigate the inflammatory reaction of the endometrium to different semen extenders, phosphate buffered saline (PBS), seminal plasma (SP), skim milk-based extender (SM) or egg yolk semen extender (EY) was inoculated into the uterus of oestrous mares (n=8) during four consecutive cycles in alternating order. Twelve hours after treatment, a uterine lavage was performed and an endometrial biopsy was taken. An additional biopsy was taken in the oes...
Gil L, Olaciregui M, Luño V, Malo C, González N, Martínez F.In recent years, there has been an increased interest in new preservation techniques that facilitate sperm storage and distribution, with freeze-drying (FD) having been proposed as an alternative method for sperm preservation and maintenance of genetic resources in different animal species. FD is a method in which frozen material is dried by sublimation of ice, thereby involving a direct transition from a solid (ice) to a vapour (gas) phase. One of the main advantages of FD is that nitrogen and dry ice are no longer required for the storage and shipment of frozen sperm, which can be stored at ...
Gobato MLM, Segabinazzi LGTM, Scheeren VFC, Bandeira RS, Freitas-Dell'Aqua CP, Dell'Aqua JA, Papa FO.Artificial insemination using cooled-transported semen has marked importance in equine breeding programs around the world, and the high value of mules has generated avid interest in donkey semen biotechnology. However, donkey semen cools poorly in commercially available equine extenders. Therefore, this study aimed to develop approaches to improve the ability of donkey semen to tolerate cooling. Ejaculates of seven donkeys (n = 21) were cooled at 5°C for 48 h in three different extenders (milk-based, SM; sodium caseinate-based, SC; or egg yolk-based, EY) in the presence or absence of seminal ...
Goericke-Pesch S, Hauck S, Failing K, Wehrend A.Membrane vesicles (MVs) in the ejaculate have been identified in various species and are considered to affect membrane fluidity due to their characteristic molecular composition. Addition of MV to human frozen semen has been shown to improve post-thaw motility. Similarly, a beneficial effect has been suggested for frozen equine semen. As post-thaw canine semen quality varies widely between dogs, the aim of our study was to test for the effect of addition of canine MV on post-thaw semen quality in dogs. Semen samples from 10 male dogs were purified from MV and prepared for freezing. In experime...
Lagares MA, Martins HS, Carvalho IA, Oliveira CA, Souza MR, Penna CF, Cruz BC, Stahlberg R, Henry MR.Extenders with a defined composition containing only components with clearly protective effects on sperm during storage would be an advantage. The aims of the present work were to assess whether caseinate, improves cooled and frozen equine semen quality. Semen from six stallions were suspended with four different cooling extenders C1) Kenney extender; C2) 0.6 % caseinate; C3) 2.7 % caseinate ; and C4) C1 + 2.1 % caseinate, and frozen extenders: F1) INRA 82 extender; F2) 1.35 % caseinate; and F3) 2.7 % caseinate. Although there was no significant difference between the motility rate among the c...
Cavalcanti TP, Pereira AG, Bezerra LGP, Moreira SSJ, da Silva AM, Matos YG, Jorge-Neto PN, Silva AR.The use of assisted reproductive techniques, such as chilled semen, contributes to the maintenance and genetic improvement of canine breeding. The INRA-96 extender is a commercially available, chemically defined medium that was initially developed for the preservation of equine semen and exhibits preservation potential in the canine species. This research aims to evaluate the INRA-96 extender as an alternative for the short-term preservation of canine semen in terms of sperm quality parameters such as motility and kinetic parameters, integrity and functionality of the plasma membrane in fresh ...
Andrade AFC, Knox RV, Torres MA, Pavaneli APP.When preserving sperm in the liquid or cryopreserved state, seminal plasma (SP) components within ejaculates can alter fertilizing capacity of these gametes. Depending on the species or how semen is collected, volume and concentration of SP components varies considerably. The SP contains substances essential for maintenance of sperm viability and fertility; however, these components can be deleterious depending on quantity, or duration of time before there is removal of SP from sperm in semen processing. Substances that impair (e.g., BSP - bull; HSP-1 - stallion; Major seminal plasma protein P...
Yang F, Li N, Liu B, Yu J, Wu S, Zhang R, Yang W, Ji C, Sun Q, Ma J, Li M, Zhou J, Zhou X, Pietrani M, Losinno L, Zeng S.With the expansion of the donkey industry, timed artificial insemination (TAI) is becoming increasingly important in the reproductive management of jennies, however, TAI has not been widely investigated in donkeys. Objective: To develop efficient TAI protocols for cooled or frozen semen in jennies, based around ovulation induction with a GnRH analogue. Methods: Experimental exploratory study. Results: In experiment 1, the effects of different GnRH analogue (deslorelin) doses, follicle diameter (FD) at induction, repeated use of a GnRH analogue, and the influence of season on induction efficien...
Ortiz I, Quiñones-Pérez C, Hidalgo M, Consuegra C, Diaz-Jimenez M, Dorado J, Vega-Pla JL, Crespo F.Dynamic assessment of sperm DNA fragmentation (SDF) has shown to give fuller understanding of stallion semen quality; however, there have been limited attempts to use this parameter to investigate seasonal changes in productive functions. The aims of this study were to: (a) establish a reliable mathematical model to describe the longevity of cooled-stored sperm DNA integrity; (b) to examine the effect of seasonal variations on SDF. Ejaculates were cooled to 5°C, and SDF was analysed after 0, 6 and 24 hr of storage. The coefficient of determination (R ) was calculated after fine-tuning linear...
Timoney PJ, O'Reilly PJ, Harrington AM, McCormack R, McArdle JF.The ability of Haemophilus equigenitalis, the causal agent of contagious equine metritis 1977, to survive in various antibiotic-containing semen extenders was studied at different environmental temperatures. Gentamicin sulphate was found to be markedly superior to ampicillin or a combination of sodium benzyl penicillin and polymyxin B sulphate, Semen treated with the former antibiotic was either sterile at cultural examination or else yielded appreciably fewer colonies of H. equigenitalis than the untreated semen control. Ampicillin had no observable effect on the survival of this organism. Ge...
Seidel GE.Principles for selecting future research projects include interests of investigators, fundability, potential applications, ethical considerations, being able to formulate testable hypotheses and choosing the best models, including selection of the most appropriate species. The following 10 areas of assisted reproduction seem especially appropriate for further research: efficacious capacitation of bovine spermatozoa in vitro; improved in vitro bovine oocyte maturation; decreasing variability and increasing efficacy of bovine superovulation; improved fertility of sexed semen; improving equine IV...
Samper JC.Semen quality, mare status and mare management during estrus will have the greatest impact on pregnancy rates when breeding mares with frozen semen. If semen quality is not optimal, mare selection and reproductive management are crucial in determining the outcome. In addition to mare selection, client communication is a key factor in a frozen semen program. Old maiden mares and problem mares should be monitored for normal cyclicity and all, except young maidens, should have at least a uterine culture and cytology performed. Mares with positive bacterial cultures and cytologies should be treate...
Bromfield JJ.Artificial insemination has been a landmark procedure in improving animal agriculture over the past 150 years. The utility of artificial insemination has facilitated a rapid improvement in animal genetics across agricultural species, leading to improvements of growth, health and productivity in poultry, swine, equine and cattle species. The utility of artificial insemination, as with all assisted reproductive technologies side-steps thousands of years of evolution that has led to the development of physiological systems to ensure the transmission of genetics from generation to generation. The ...
Ertmer F, Oldenhof H, Schütze S, Rohn K, Wolkers WF, Sieme H.If the physiological balance between production and scavenging of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is shifted towards production of ROS this may result in accumulation of cell damage over time. In this study stallion spermatozoa were incubated with xanthine and xanthine oxidase (X-XO) to artificially generate defined levels of superoxide and hydrogen peroxide resulting in sub-lethal oxidative damage. The effects of X-XO treatment on various sperm characteristics were studied. Special emphasis was placed on sperm osmotic tolerance pre-freeze and its correlation with cryosurvival, given that cryopr...
Yánez-Ortiz I, Catalán J, Rodríguez-Gil JE, Miró J, Yeste M.Sperm cryopreservation is one of the most important procedures in the development of biotechnologies for assisted reproduction. In some farm animals, the use of cryopreserved sperm has so many benefits for which relevance has become more evident in recent decades. Values for post-thaw sperm quality, however, are variable among species and within individuals of the same species. There is no standardized methodology for each of the stages of the cryopreservation procedure (andrological examination, semen collection, dilution, centrifugation, resuspension of the pellet with the freezing medium, p...
Vanderwall DK, Woods GL.To determine the effect on fertility of large-volume uterine lavage with lactated Ringer's solution (LRS) performed immediately prior to insemination in mares. Methods: Prospective randomized controlled study. Methods: 20 mares. Methods: Control mares (n = 10) were inseminated with 1 billion (estimated before cooling) progressively motile spermatozoa that had been cooled in a passive cooling unit for 24 hours. Mares (n = 10) in the treatment group were inseminated with 1 billion progressively motile spermatozoa (cooled as described for control mares) immediately after uterine lavage with 4 L o...
McDonnell SM.This study is part of ongoing work toward developing pharmacological methods for enhancing and inducing ejaculation in stallions with ejaculatory dysfunction or disabilities that interfere with normal breeding behavior. The objective was to evaluate a treatment regimen involving oral imipramine followed by intravenous xylazine that, in uncontrolled field clinical trials, had shown promise for a higher rate of ejaculation and fewer side effects using a more easily obtained and administered form of imipramine. Eight stallions each underwent eight trials in which treatment consisted of imipramine...
Love CC, Thompson JA, Brinsko SP, Rigby SL, Blanchard TL, Lowry VK, Varner DD.Relationships between sperm motility parameters and viability were evaluated using two fluorescent staining techniques in fresh extended semen (fresh and after 24 h storage at 5 degrees C) that had various concentrations of dead sperm added to simulate different levels of viable and nonviable sperm. Both protocols incorporated SYBR-14 and propidium iodide (PI) while the second protocol added the mitochondrial probe JC-1. The relationship between total sperm motility and percent viable sperm was high between staining protocols (r = 0.98). Time (0 h versus 24 h, P<0.0001) and treatment (0, 10, 2...
Tekin N, Wöckener A, Klug E.The effect of a skim milk extender and a glycine-containing extender on sperm motility and acrosome morphology of stallion semen was examined. There was no difference concerning acrosome morphology. After 24 hours of preservation motility of the ejaculates diluted with glycine extender was significantly superior to those handled with skim milk extender. Storage at 5 degrees C in all cases gave better results than storage at room temperature. Skim milk extender is an appropriate diluent when the semen is used for al on the day of its collection, whereas the glycine-containing extender offers th...
Hemberg E, Lundeheim N, Einarsson S.To minimize the number of matings/inseminations, controlled ovulation has been practised since a long time ago. A potent short-term implant, releasing the GnRH analogue deslorelin (Ovuplant((R))) has been used in Australia and North America for several years for hastening the ovulation time in mares, but the product is not registered on the European market. This study was aimed to investigate: (1) ovulation time in mares implanted with Ovuplant when the largest follicle was 42 mm or more in size, (2) repeatability of ovulation time in successive oestruses when treated with Ovuplant, (3) pregna...
Balao da Silva CM, Ortega Ferrusola C, Gallardo Bolaños JM, Plaza Dávila M, Martín-Muñoz P, Morrell JM, Rodriguez Martínez H, Peña FJ.Flow cytometry is considered the only reliable method for the separation of X and Y chromosome bearing spermatozoa in equines. The MoFlo SX DP sorter is highly efficient, allowing the production of foals of the desired sex. However, to achieve acceptable pregnancy rates the currently used protocol requires working with fresh semen obtained close to, or at, the sorting facility. An alternative protocol was tested during two consecutive breeding seasons. Fresh stallion semen was cooled for 20 h, during which staining with Hoechst 33342 took place. On the following day, this sample was flow sort...
Aurich J, Kuhl J, Tichy A, Aurich C.Differences in the cryotolerance of spermatozoa exist among stallions, but it remains to be determined to what extent such differences are affected by breed. In this study, post-thaw semen quality in stallions presented for semen cryopreservation was analysed retrospectively (1012 ejaculates from 134 stallions of 5 breeds). The percentage of frozen-thawed ejaculates acceptable for artificial insemination (AI) and the number of insemination doses per cryopreserved ejaculate was calculated. Logistic regression analysis revealed sperm motility in raw semen as the most important explanatory variab...
