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Topic:Tendons

Tendons in horses are fibrous connective tissues that attach muscles to bones, facilitating movement and providing stability to the musculoskeletal system. They are composed primarily of collagen fibers, which confer strength and flexibility, allowing horses to perform various physical activities. Equine tendons are subject to significant mechanical stress during locomotion, making them susceptible to injury, particularly in performance horses. Common tendon injuries include strains, tears, and tendinitis, which can impact a horse's mobility and performance. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the structure, function, and pathology of tendons in horses, as well as advancements in diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for tendon injuries.
Response of the Thoroughbred Forelimb to Perturbations Caused by a Change in Ground Surface.
Journal of equine veterinary science    February 10, 2022   Volume 112 103897 doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2022.103897
Bardin AL, Taylor NC, Robert Colborne G.Thoroughbred racehorses are often affected by musculoskeletal injuries, leading to involuntary rest, early retirement or death. Hardness and consistency of the track surface have been implicated as major risk factors for limb injury. The purpose was to test the utility of a preliminary AnyBody musculoskeletal model of the equine forelimb for its responses on two perturbing surfaces. A musculoskeletal model was developed using CT, muscle, tendon and ligament properties, and kinematic data were applied from ridden trials using five Thoroughbred horses. Horses were ridden at trot and canter on a ...
Histological tissue healing following high-power laser treatment in a model of suspensory ligament branch injury.
Equine veterinary journal    January 20, 2022   Volume 54, Issue 6 1114-1122 doi: 10.1111/evj.13556
Pluim M, Heier A, Plomp S, Boshuizen B, Gröne A, van Weeren R, Vanderperren K, Martens A, Dewulf J, Chantziaras I, Koene M, Luciani A, Oosterlinck M....High-power laser therapy gained popularity recently as a regenerative treatment for tendinitis and desmitis in the horse. However, studies evaluating the effects of laser therapy on tissue repair at the histological level in large mammals are lacking. Objective: To evaluate the effects of high-power laser therapy on suspensory desmitis healing, using a model of suspensory ligament branch injury. Methods: In vivo experiments. Methods: Standardised lesions were surgically induced in all four lateral suspensory branches of 12 healthy Warmblood horses. Laser therapy (class 4, 15W) was applied dail...
Intralesional bone marrow and superior check desmotomy is superior to conservative treatment of equine superficial digital flexor tendonitis.
Equine veterinary journal    January 14, 2022   Volume 54, Issue 6 1047-1054 doi: 10.1111/evj.13553
Murphy DJ, Kö-Peternelj V, Aleri JW.Superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) injury is common in racehorses and a significant cause of lost training days and wastage in the industry. Objective: To compare the post-injury performance of Thoroughbred and Standardbred racehorses diagnosed with SDFT tendonitis treated with intralesional bone marrow and superior check desmotomy or managed conservatively and further to compare this performance with that of uninjured racehorses. Methods: Retrospective and case-controlled. Methods: Medical and race records of racehorses treated surgically or managed conservatively for SDFT tendonitis we...
Ultrasound-guided tenoscopic decompression of digital sheath synoviocoeles in 10 horses.
Veterinary surgery : VS    December 20, 2021   Volume 51, Issue 2 311-319 doi: 10.1111/vsu.13751
Hawkins A, Chapman L, Meter M, Smith RK.To report the diagnostic features and clinical outcome of horses with digital flexor tendon sheath (DFTS) synoviocoeles treated tenoscopically under ultrasonographic guidance. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Client-owned horses (n = 10). Methods: Medical records were searched for horses with lameness localized to the region of the DFTS and clinical evidence of a fluid-filled mass (synoviocoele) associated with the DFTS. Diagnostic imaging and surgical findings, together with long-term outcome, were reported. Results: Lameness and synoviocoeles were unilateral (5 forelimbs, 5 hin...
Using Short Term of High Power Laser Therapy in Horse’s Tendon Injuries.
Archives of Razi Institute    November 30, 2021   Volume 76, Issue 5 1437-1444 doi: 10.22092/ari.2021.356105.1779
Jaafar SE, Al-Bayti AAH, Abdullah SI.High-power laser therapy has been used as a treatment to cure sports injuries; however, there are no controlled standardized studies on its efficacy. Moreover, high-power laser therapy has been applied for the sport horses field. This study aimed to investigate whether high-power laser therapy can cure tendon disorders and reduce the pain in tendon lesions in injured horses and also to examine the effect of laser therapy on injured horses. This retroactive experiential clinical research was performed on50 racing horses between 5 and 15 years old. They were diagnosed with neither superficial di...
Mesenchymal Stromal Cells Adapt to Chronic Tendon Disease Environment with an Initial Reduction in Matrix Remodeling.
International journal of molecular sciences    November 26, 2021   Volume 22, Issue 23 12798 doi: 10.3390/ijms222312798
Doll CU, Niebert S, Burk J.Tendon lesions are common sporting injuries in humans and horses alike. The healing process of acute tendon lesions frequently results in fibrosis and chronic disease. In horses, local mesenchymal stromal cell (MSC) injection is an accepted therapeutic strategy with positive influence on acute lesions. Concerning the use of MSCs in chronic tendon disease, data are scarce but suggest less therapeutic benefit. However, it has been shown that MSCs can have a positive effect on fibrotic tissue. Therefore, we aimed to elucidate the interplay of MSCs and healthy or chronically diseased tendon matrix...
Growth Factor Roles in Soft Tissue Physiology and Pathophysiology.
Advances in experimental medicine and biology    November 23, 2021   Volume 1348 139-159 doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-80614-9_6
Roberts JH, Halper J.Repair and healing of injured and diseased tendons has been traditionally fraught with apprehension and difficulties, and often led to rather unsatisfactory results. The burgeoning research field of growth factors has opened new venues for treatment of tendon disorders and injuries, and possibly for treatment of disorders of the aorta and major arteries as well. Several chapters in this volume elucidate the role of transforming growth factor β (TGFß) in pathogenesis of several heritable disorders affecting soft tissues, such as aorta, cardiac valves, and tendons and ligaments. Several member...
Deep Digital Flexor Tendon Injury at the Level of the Proximal Phalanx in Frontlimbs With Tendon Sheath Distension Characterized by Standing Low-Field Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Horses: 13 Cases (2015-2021).
Frontiers in veterinary science    November 18, 2021   Volume 8 734729 doi: 10.3389/fvets.2021.734729
van Veggel ECS, Selberg KT, van der Velde-Hoogelander B, Vanderperren K, Cokelaere SM, Bergman HJ. To describe the MRI findings for 13 horses with deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) injury at the proximal phalanx where the tendon goes from ovoid to bilobed in frontlimbs with tendon sheath distension. In addition, the prognosis of this lesion was assessed. Retrospective case series. Thirteen client-owned horses. Medical records were reviewed, and data were collected regarding signalment, history, MRI findings, and outcomes of horses. Findings of MRI were recorded and whether the case was confirmed with tenoscopy. A diagnosis of DDFT injury at the junction between ovoid and bilobed portio...
An Evaluation of Current Preventative Measures Used in Equine Practice to Maintain Distal Forelimb Functionality: A Mini Review.
Frontiers in veterinary science    November 2, 2021   Volume 8 758970 doi: 10.3389/fvets.2021.758970
Clarke EJ, Gillen A, Turlo A, Peffers MJ.Horses are used in a variety of equestrian disciplines predisposing them to musculoskeletal injury or disease including osteoarthritis and tendinopathy. As a result, a number of preventative measures are used within equine medicine and husbandry, ranging from therapeutic shoeing to the use of nutraceuticals. Despite their popularity and routine use evidence base and clinical outcomes are variable, bringing into question the efficacy of these prophylactic measures. In recent years a small number of studies have been performed examining the effect of specific strategies in order to quantify the ...
Gross, computed tomographic, and endoscopic anatomy of the equine carpal extensor tendon sheaths.
Veterinary surgery : VS    November 1, 2021   Volume 51, Issue 1 202-213 doi: 10.1111/vsu.13743
Baldwin CM, Morgan RE, Crawford AL, Villarino NF, Rubio-Martínez LM.(1) To describe the computed tomography (CT) and gross anatomy of the equine extensor carpi radialis sheath (ECRS) and common digital extensor sheath (CDETS); (2) to describe a single-portal endoscopic examination of the ECRS and CDETS. Methods: Ex vivo experimental. Methods: Thirty clinically normal cadaver thoracic equine limbs severed at the humeral diaphysis. Methods: Ten limbs underwent plain and intrathecal contrast CT examinations and gross dissection of the ECRS and CDETS. Single-portal endoscopic examination of ECRS and CDETS was attempted in 4 limbs and endoscopic examination was per...
Three-Dimensional Segmentation and in silico Comparison of Equine Deep Digital Flexor Tendon Pathology in Horses Undergoing Repeated MRI Examination.
Frontiers in veterinary science    October 21, 2021   Volume 8 706046 doi: 10.3389/fvets.2021.706046
Trolinger-Meadows KD, Biedrzycki AH, He H, Werpy N.The use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has led to increased clinical and research applications using 3D segmentation and reconstructed volumetric data in musculoskeletal imaging. Lesions of the deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) are a common pathology in horses undergoing MRI. Three-dimensional MRI reconstruction performed for volumetric tendon analysis in horses has not previously been documented. The aim of this proof-of-concept study was to evaluate the 3D segmentation of horses undergoing repeated MRI at several time points and to perform an analysis of the segmented DDFTs across time....
Kinesiotaping in Horses [translation]
Tierarztliche Praxis. Ausgabe G, Grosstiere/Nutztiere    October 19, 2021   Volume 49, Issue 5 363 doi: 10.1055/a-1619-9378
Translation: The 2nd edition of this specialized book by Renate Ettl includes basic knowledge about the use of kinesiological tapes, ranging from their foundations to specific applications in horses. The reader is vividly introduced to the material and adhesive properties of the tapes, the various application techniques, and their correct application. The book is mainly aimed at manual therapists and veterinarians, but interested horse owners can also gain insight into the "world of colorful strips" with this work. Part 1 of the book provides foundational knowledge necessary for the correct...
Equine flexor tendon imaging part 2: Current status and future directions in advanced diagnostic imaging, with focus on the deep digital flexor tendon.
Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)    October 19, 2021   Volume 278 105763 doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2021.105763
Ehrle A, Lilge S, Clegg PD, Maddox TW.Flexor tendon injuries are a common cause of lameness and early retirement in equine athletes. While ultrasonography is most frequently utilised, advanced diagnostic imaging modalities are becoming more widely available for detection and monitoring of flexor tendon lesions. Part two of this literature review details current experience with low- and high-field magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) for the diagnosis of equine flexor tendinopathy with a focus on the deep digital flexor tendon. Implications of the 'magic angle' artefact as well as injection techniques and t...
Equine flexor tendon imaging part 1: Recent developments in ultrasonography, with focus on the superficial digital flexor tendon.
Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)    October 19, 2021   Volume 278 105764 doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2021.105764
Ehrle A, Lilge S, Clegg PD, Maddox TW.Flexor tendon injuries are a major cause of lameness in performance horses and have considerable impact on equine welfare and the wider horse industry. Ageing and repetitive strain frequently cause varying degrees of tendon micro-damage prior to the recognition of clinical tendinopathy. Whilst B-mode ultrasonography is most commonly utilised for detection and monitoring of tendon lesions at the metacarpal/metatarsal level, the emphasis of recent research has focused on the identification of subclinical tendon damage in order to prevent further tendon injury and improve outcomes. The introducti...
Rho/ROCK Inhibition Promotes TGF-β3-Induced Tenogenic Differentiation in Mesenchymal Stromal Cells.
Stem cells international    October 8, 2021   Volume 2021 8284690 doi: 10.1155/2021/8284690
Melzer M, Schubert S, Müller SF, Geyer J, Hagen A, Niebert S, Burk J.Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSC) represent a promising therapeutic tool for tendon regeneration. Their tenogenic differentiation is crucial for tissue engineering approaches and may support their beneficial effects after cell transplantation . The transforming growth factor (TGF)-, signalling via intracellular Smad molecules, is a potent paracrine mediator of tenogenic induction. Moreover, scaffold topography or tendon matrix components induced tenogenesis via activation of the Rho/ROCK cascade, which, however, is also involved in pathological adaptations in extracellular matrix pathologies. Th...
Tissue predictability of elastography is low in collagenase induced deep digital flexor tendinopathy. Johnson SA, Biscoe EW, Eilertson KE, Lutter JD, Schneider RK, Roberts GD, Cary JA, Frisbie DD.Elastography is an emerging imaging modality for characterizing tendon injury in horses, but its ability to differentiate tissue deformability relative to treatment group and biochemical properties using a prospective, experimental study design remain unknown. Objectives of the current study were to (a) to investigate differences in glycosaminoglycan, DNA, and soluble collagen levels in mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) treated limbs compared to untreated control limbs utilizing a collagenase model of tendinopathy; (b) compare elastographic features between treatment groups; and (c) determine tissue...
Diagnostic imaging features, cytological examination, and treatment of lymphocytic tenosynovitis of the common digital extensor tendon sheath in an eventing horse.
Veterinary and animal science    September 26, 2021   Volume 14 100209 doi: 10.1016/j.vas.2021.100209
Chanda M, Klinphayom C, Sungsuwan T, Senarat W, Thongkham E, Kamlangdee A, Senarat N.In horses, the structures at the dorsal aspect of the carpus, including the digital extensor tendons, their related tendon sheaths, and bones, are vulnerable to injury because of their superficial location. Injuries to these structures may result in lameness of the affected limb(s) and reduce a horse's athletic performance. A 13-year-old eventing horse that routinely underwent regular exercise exhibited dorsolateral distension of the right carpus. An effusion insensitive to compression was observed in the affected area. No lameness was detected, and the horse exhibited a negative response to t...
Drivers of exit and outcomes for Thoroughbred racehorses participating in the 2017-2018 Australian racing season.
PloS one    September 21, 2021   Volume 16, Issue 9 e0257581 doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0257581
Shrestha K, Gilkerson JR, Stevenson MA, Flash ML.The destinations of Thoroughbred (TB) racehorses exiting the racing industry is a high-profile issue with ethical and welfare implications of interest to both animal welfare groups and racing regulators. This cross-sectional study investigated the reasons that TBs temporarily or permanently exited racing and training in Australia in the 2017-2018 racing season and the outcomes for these horses post-racing. An online questionnaire was sent to the last registered trainers of a representative sample of 2,509 'inactive' TBs. Inactive horses were defined as those horses that were recorded as 'activ...
Ciprofloxacin reduces tenocyte viability and proteoglycan synthesis in short-term explant cultures of equine tendon.
PeerJ    August 30, 2021   Volume 9 e12003 doi: 10.7717/peerj.12003
James S, Schuijers J, Daffy J, Cook J, Samiric T.Fluoroquinolones are an effective, broad-spectrum antibiotic used to treat an array of bacterial infections. However, they are associated with an increased risk of tendinopathy and tendon rupture even after discontinuation of treatment. This condition is known as fluoroquinolone-associated tendinopathy, the underlying mechanisms of which are poorly understood. While many factors may be involved in the pathophysiology of tendinopathies in general, changes in tenocyte metabolism and viability, as well as alteration of proteoglycan metabolism are prominent findings in the scientific literature. T...
Assessment of Functional Conservative Treatment of Acute Complete Achilles Tendon Rupture.
The Israel Medical Association journal : IMAJ    August 16, 2021   Volume 23, Issue 8 510-515 
Steinfeld Y, Akian R, Rovitsky A, Puchkov N, Keren Y.In recent years, treatment for Achilles tendon rupture (ATR) went through radical changes: from the conservative non-weight bearing approach to a functional protocol. This functional protocol allows complete weight bearing after only 2 weeks by placing the foot in a plastic boot in tapered down equines and using interchangeable wedges under the heel. This change of approach has dramatically lowered the rate of re-rupture. Objective: To describe our preliminary results with this functional protocol and to assess outcome measures in the functional conservative treatment. Methods: The study compr...
Distal Gracilis Tear in an Equestrian.
American journal of physical medicine & rehabilitation    July 29, 2021   Volume 101, Issue 1 e8-e10 doi: 10.1097/PHM.0000000000001854
Chen YT, Mills C, von Rickenbach KJ, McInnis KC.A 61-yr-old female equestrian presented after 2 wks of left medial thigh pain, which developed suddenly while exiting a car. She denied any history of recent trauma or falls. On examination, she was found to have tenderness at the left distal medial thigh with a palpable region of decreased tissue volume at the gracilis myotendinous junction. Point-of-care ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging confirmed a high-grade partial thickness tear of the left distal gracilis at the myotendinous junction, as well as pes anserine bursal distention. She received physical therapy and underwent a 1-time...
RNA sequencing and immunofluorescence of the myotendinous junction of mature horses and humans.
American journal of physiology. Cell physiology    July 14, 2021   Volume 321, Issue 3 C453-C470 doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.00218.2021
Jakobsen JR, Schjerling P, Svensson RB, Buhl R, Carstensen H, Koch M, Krogsgaard MR, Kjær M, Mackey AL.The myotendinous junction (MTJ) is a specialized interface for transmitting high forces between the muscle and tendon and yet the MTJ is a common site of strain injury with a high recurrence rate. The aim of this study was to identify previously unknown MTJ components in mature animals and humans. Samples were obtained from the superficial digital flexor (SDF) muscle-tendon interface of 20 horses, and the tissue was separated through a sequential cryosectioning approach into muscle, MTJ (muscle tissue enriched in myofiber tips attached to the tendon), and tendon fractions. RT-PCR was performed...
Evaluation of Autologous Protein Solution Injection for Treatment of Superficial Digital Flexor Tendonitis in an Equine Model.
Frontiers in veterinary science    July 5, 2021   Volume 8 697551 doi: 10.3389/fvets.2021.697551
Gaesser AM, Underwood C, Linardi RL, Even KM, Reef VB, Shetye SS, Mauck RL, King WJ, Engiles JB, Ortved KF.Autologous protein solution (APS) has been used anecdotally for intralesional treatment of tendon and ligament injuries, however, its use in these injuries has never been studied . Our objective was to evaluate the effect of APS on tendon healing in an equine superficial digital flexor (SDF) tendonitis model. We hypothesized intralesional injection of APS would result in superior structural and biomechanical healing. SDF tendonitis was induced in both forelimbs of eight horses using collagenase injection. One forelimb was randomly assigned to receive an intralesional injection of APS, while th...
Deep digital flexor tendon lesions in the pastern are associated with the presence of distal tendinopathy.
Equine veterinary journal    June 28, 2021   Volume 54, Issue 3 502-512 doi: 10.1111/evj.13470
Acutt EV, Contino EK, Frisbie DD, Barrett MF.Correct diagnosis and characterisation of deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) lesions in equine athletes allows targeted treatment and improved prognostication. Objective: To assess the prevalence and character of pathological change within the DDFT in the pastern with concurrent tendon injury distally. It is hypothesised that tendon lesions in the pastern will be associated with tendinopathy within the hoof capsule. Methods: Retrospective descriptive case series. Methods: Cases with DDFT lesions in the pastern and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or ultrasonography of the foot were evaluated re...
Cyclic tensile tests of Shetland pony superficial digital flexor tendons (SDFTs) with an optimized cryo-clamp combined with biplanar high-speed fluoroscopy.
BMC veterinary research    June 25, 2021   Volume 17, Issue 1 223 doi: 10.1186/s12917-021-02914-w
Wagner FC, Reese S, Gerlach K, Böttcher P, Mülling CKW.Long-term cyclic tensile testing with equine palmar/plantar tendons have not yet been performed due to problems in fixing equine tendons securely and loading them cyclically. It is well established that the biomechanical response of tendons varies during cyclic loading over time. The aim of this study was to develop a clamping device that enables repetitive cyclic tensile testing of equine superficial digital flexor tendon for at least 60 loading cycles and for 5 min. Results: A novel cryo-clamp was developed and built. Healthy and collagenase-treated pony SDFTs were mounted in the custom-ma...
Species variations in tenocytes’ response to inflammation require careful selection of animal models for tendon research.
Scientific reports    June 14, 2021   Volume 11, Issue 1 12451 doi: 10.1038/s41598-021-91914-9
Oreff GL, Fenu M, Vogl C, Ribitsch I, Jenner F.For research on tendon injury, many different animal models are utilized; however, the extent to which these species simulate the clinical condition and disease pathophysiology has not yet been critically evaluated. Considering the importance of inflammation in tendon disease, this study compared the cellular and molecular features of inflammation in tenocytes of humans and four common model species (mouse, rat, sheep, and horse). While mouse and rat tenocytes most closely equalled human tenocytes' low proliferation capacity and the negligible effect of inflammation on proliferation, the wound...
Tenogenic Potential of Equine Fetal Mesenchymal Stem Cells Under The In Vitro Effect of Bone Morphogenetic Protein-12 (BMP-12).
Journal of equine veterinary science    June 11, 2021   Volume 104 103681 doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2021.103681
Oliva R, Núñez I, Segunda MN, Peralta OA.Equine adult bone marrow-derived MSCs (BM-MSCs) may be induced into the tenogenic lineage after exposure with bone morphogenetic protein-12 (BMP-12). Despite fetal BM-MSCs have showed a greater differentiation potential compared to adults, the tenogenic differentiation capacity of equine fetal BM-MSC have not been reported. Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the in vitro tenogenic differentiation potential of equine fetal BM-MSCs under the effect of BMP-12. Equine fetal BM-MSCs were exposed to three concentrations of BMP-12 (25, 50 and 100 ng/mL) during a 21-day culture period....
Longitudinal tendon healing assessed with multi-modality advanced imaging and tissue analysis.
Equine veterinary journal    June 8, 2021   doi: 10.1111/evj.13478
Johnson SA, Valdés-Martínez A, Turk PJ, Wayne McIlwraith C, Barrett MF, McGilvray KC, Frisbie DD.The range of diagnostic modalities available to evaluate superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) injury includes magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT) and ultrasonography (US). Direct, comprehensive comparison of multi-modality imaging characteristics to end-point data has not previously been performed using a model of tendinopathy but is required to obtain a better understanding of each modality's diagnostic capabilities. Objective: To compare CT, MRI and US evaluation to outcome measures for histologic, biochemical and biomechanical parameters using an equine surgical m...
Ex vivo mechanical testing of various suture patterns for use in tendon plating.
Veterinary surgery : VS    June 2, 2021   Volume 50, Issue 6 1296-1303 doi: 10.1111/vsu.13659
Hale MJ, Zellner EM, Naiman JH, Kraus KH.To determine the influence of suture patterns on resistance to gap formation after tendon plating STUDY DESIGN: Ex vivo study SAMPLE POPULATION: Suspensory ligament and superficial and deep digital flexor tendons harvested from 16 neonatal cadaver foal limbs. Methods: Each tendon/ligament from a given limb was randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups consisting of a 7-hole veterinary cuttable plate fixed with alternating simple interrupted, figure-8, or hybrid suture patterns. The constructs were distracted at a rate of 1.0 mm/s to failure, as determined by the formation of a 1 m...
Biplanar High-Speed Fluoroscopy of Pony Superficial Digital Flexor Tendon (SDFT)-An In Vivo Pilot Study.
Veterinary sciences    May 27, 2021   Volume 8, Issue 6 92 doi: 10.3390/vetsci8060092
Wagner FC, Gerlach K, Geiger SM, Gittel C, Böttcher P, Mülling CKW.The superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) is the most frequently injured structure of the musculoskeletal system in sport horses and a common cause for early retirement. This project's aim was to visualize and measure the strain of the sound, injured, and healing SDFTs in a pony during walk and trot. For this purpose, biplanar high-speed fluoroscopic kinematography (FluoKin), as a high precision X-ray movement analysis tool, was used for the first time in vivo with equine tendons. The strain in the metacarpal region of the sound SDFT was 2.86% during walk and 6.78% during trot. When injured...