FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 9000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Home / Equine Research Bank / Animals (Basel) / Does Juvenile Play Programme the Equine Musculoskeletal Syst...
Animals : an open access journal from MDPI2019; 9(9); 646; doi: 10.3390/ani9090646

Does Juvenile Play Programme the Equine Musculoskeletal System?

Abstract: In mammals, play behaviour appears innate and, because of this, may provide insight into the frequency and intensity of load that is required to stimulate positive musculoskeletal development. The objective of this review was to explore the interaction between play and tissue (bone) development at a molecular through to whole-animal level, with specific focus on the horse as a model. The basis of our understanding of the response of bone to loading is the mechanostat theorem. This assumes that at a tissue level, bone attempts to keep localised strain within the physiological range of 1500-2500 microstrain. Loads above this range result in a modelling response to reduce strain, and strain below this threshold results in remodelling to maintain the localised physiological range. In foals, locomotor play is dramatic and vigorous, with cumulative increases in both intensity and complexity. Based on published literature describing locomotor play in foals and the microstrain at different gaits in the horse, it was proposed that locomotor play in foal aligns with the mechanostat theorem in both the magnitude and frequency of load cycles applied. The cumulative increases in the complexity and intensity of locomotor play as the foal develops, in turn, ensure the strain rates associated with play remain above the local physiological range and promote material and architectural changes in the distal limb bones. Thus, spontaneous locomotor play may be vital to ensure optimal bone development in the horse. Modern management systems need to provide appropriate opportunities for foals to perform spontaneous locomotor play to optimise bone development and reduce the risk of future musculoskeletal injury later in life.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2019-09-03 PubMed ID: 31484397PubMed Central: PMC6770595DOI: 10.3390/ani9090646Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This research article discusses the potential link between juvenile play behaviour in horses and their musculoskeletal development. The researchers hypothesize that spontaneous locomotor play in foals may play a significant role in facilitating optimal bone development, and thus suggests the need for adequate play opportunities in their modern management systems.

Study Objective and Methodology

  • The main purpose of this investigation is to understand the correlation between play behaviour and tissue (particularly bone) development.
  • The focus is on horses and juvenile play as a model for this exploration. The research uses the framework of the ‘mechanostat theorem’, which posits that bone strain is ideally kept within a certain range – between 1500-2500 microstrain – for optimal development.

Mechanostat Theorem

  • The mechanostat theorem is a crucial basis for this study, asserting that the bone automatically responds to loads/strain to keep it within a specific physiological range. If the strain passes above this range, a modelling response cuts it down, and if it’s under this range, a remodelling process maintains the preferred strain level.

Locomotor Play in Foals

  • Locomotor play in foals is observed to be vigorous and full of drama and complexity, progressively increasing as the foal matured. When viewed alongside the microstrain at different gaits, locomotor play seemed to align with the mechanostat theorem regarding both the load cycle’s frequency and size.
  • The theory propagated by the researchers is that the rate of strain associated with play behaviour remains above the physiological range, which promotes changes in the distal limb bones’ material and architecture.

Implications of the Study

  • The behaviour of spontaneous play in foals could be critical in assuring optimal bone development in horses. It is thus presented as a crucial component in modern management systems to furnish appropriate opportunities for foals to engage in locomotor play.
  • Providing sufficient play opportunities could ultimately minimize the risk of future musculoskeletal injuries in adult horses and become a new standard in horse care.

Cite This Article

APA
Rogers CW, Dittmer KE. (2019). Does Juvenile Play Programme the Equine Musculoskeletal System? Animals (Basel), 9(9), 646. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani9090646

Publication

Animals : an open access journal from MDPI
ISSN: 2076-2615
NlmUniqueID: 101635614
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 9
Issue: 9
PII: 646

Researcher Affiliations

Rogers, Chris W
  • School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand. C.W.Rogers@massey.ac.nz.
  • School of Agriculture and Environment, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand. C.W.Rogers@massey.ac.nz.
Dittmer, Keren E
  • School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Private Bag 11 222, Palmerston North 4410, New Zealand. k.e.dittmer@massey.ac.nz.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

This article includes 66 references
  1. Barker DJ. The origins of the developmental origins theory.. J Intern Med 2007 May;261(5):412-7.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2796.2007.01809.xpubmed: 17444880google scholar: lookup
  2. Rogers CW, Firth EC, McIlwraith CW, Barneveld A, Goodship AE, Kawcak CE, Smith RK, van Weeren PR. Evaluation of a new strategy to modulate skeletal development in Thoroughbred performance horses by imposing track-based exercise during growth.. Equine Vet J 2008 Mar;40(2):111-8.
    doi: 10.2746/042516408X268923pubmed: 18093894google scholar: lookup
  3. Rogers CW, Bolwell CF, Tanner JC, Van Weeren PR. Early exercise in the horse.. J. Vet. Behav. Clin. Appl. Res. 2012;7:375–379.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jveb.2012.01.003google scholar: lookup
  4. Cameron EZ, Linklater WL, Stafford KJ, Minot EO. Maternal investment results in better foal condition through increased play behaviour in horses.. Anim. Behav. 2008;76:1511–1518.
    doi: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2008.07.009google scholar: lookup
  5. Frost HM. Bone "mass" and the "mechanostat": a proposal.. Anat Rec 1987 Sep;219(1):1-9.
    doi: 10.1002/ar.1092190104pubmed: 3688455google scholar: lookup
  6. Rubin CT, Lanyon LE. Regulation of bone formation by applied dynamic loads.. J Bone Joint Surg Am 1984 Mar;66(3):397-402.
    doi: 10.2106/00004623-198466030-00012pubmed: 6699056google scholar: lookup
  7. Sinclair C, Birch HL, Goodship AE, Smith RKW. 8—Skeletal physiology: Responses to exercise and training.. Equine Sports Medicine and Surgery 2014. 2nd ed. WB Saunders; Philadelphia, PA, USA: pp. 145–165.
    doi: 10.1016/B978-0-7020-4771-8.00008-9google scholar: lookup
  8. Klein-Nulend J, Bakker AD, Bacabac RG, Vatsa A, Weinbaum S. Mechanosensation and transduction in osteocytes.. Bone 2013 Jun;54(2):182-90.
    doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2012.10.013pubmed: 23085083google scholar: lookup
  9. Franz-Odendaal TA, Hall BK, Witten PE. Buried alive: how osteoblasts become osteocytes.. Dev Dyn 2006 Jan;235(1):176-90.
    doi: 10.1002/dvdy.20603pubmed: 16258960google scholar: lookup
  10. Han Y, Cowin SC, Schaffler MB, Weinbaum S. Mechanotransduction and strain amplification in osteocyte cell processes.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004 Nov 23;101(47):16689-94.
    doi: 10.1073/pnas.0407429101pmc: PMC534548pubmed: 15539460google scholar: lookup
  11. Wang B, Lai X, Price C, Thompson WR, Li W, Quabili TR, Tseng WJ, Liu XS, Zhang H, Pan J, Kirn-Safran CB, Farach-Carson MC, Wang L. Perlecan-containing pericellular matrix regulates solute transport and mechanosensing within the osteocyte lacunar-canalicular system.. J Bone Miner Res 2014 Apr;29(4):878-91.
    doi: 10.1002/jbmr.2105pmc: PMC3962519pubmed: 24115222google scholar: lookup
  12. Turner CH, Forwood MR, Otter MW. Mechanotransduction in bone: do bone cells act as sensors of fluid flow?. FASEB J 1994 Aug;8(11):875-8.
    doi: 10.1096/fasebj.8.11.8070637pubmed: 8070637google scholar: lookup
  13. Price C, Zhou X, Li W, Wang L. Real-time measurement of solute transport within the lacunar-canalicular system of mechanically loaded bone: direct evidence for load-induced fluid flow.. J Bone Miner Res 2011 Feb;26(2):277-85.
    doi: 10.1002/jbmr.211pmc: PMC3179346pubmed: 20715178google scholar: lookup
  14. Henstock JR, Rotherham M, Rose JB, El Haj AJ. Cyclic hydrostatic pressure stimulates enhanced bone development in the foetal chick femur in vitro.. Bone 2013 Apr;53(2):468-77.
    doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2013.01.010pubmed: 23333177google scholar: lookup
  15. You L, Cowin SC, Schaffler MB, Weinbaum S. A model for strain amplification in the actin cytoskeleton of osteocytes due to fluid drag on pericellular matrix.. J Biomech 2001 Nov;34(11):1375-86.
    doi: 10.1016/S0021-9290(01)00107-5pubmed: 11672712google scholar: lookup
  16. Dittmer KE, Firth EC. Mechanisms of bone response to injury.. J Vet Diagn Invest 2017 Jul;29(4):385-395.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638716679861pubmed: 28061633google scholar: lookup
  17. Geoghegan IP, Hoey DA, McNamara LM. Integrins in Osteocyte Biology and Mechanotransduction.. Curr Osteoporos Rep 2019 Aug;17(4):195-206.
    doi: 10.1007/s11914-019-00520-2pubmed: 31250372google scholar: lookup
  18. Kringelbach TM, Aslan D, Novak I, Ellegaard M, Syberg S, Andersen CK, Kristiansen KA, Vang O, Schwarz P, Jørgensen NR. Fine-tuned ATP signals are acute mediators in osteocyte mechanotransduction.. Cell Signal 2015 Dec;27(12):2401-9.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cellsig.2015.08.016pubmed: 26327582google scholar: lookup
  19. Genetos DC, Kephart CJ, Zhang Y, Yellowley CE, Donahue HJ. Oscillating fluid flow activation of gap junction hemichannels induces ATP release from MLO-Y4 osteocytes.. J Cell Physiol 2007 Jul;212(1):207-14.
    doi: 10.1002/jcp.21021pmc: PMC2929812pubmed: 17301958google scholar: lookup
  20. Zaman G, Pitsillides AA, Rawlinson SC, Suswillo RF, Mosley JR, Cheng MZ, Platts LA, Hukkanen M, Polak JM, Lanyon LE. Mechanical strain stimulates nitric oxide production by rapid activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase in osteocytes.. J Bone Miner Res 1999 Jul;14(7):1123-31.
    doi: 10.1359/jbmr.1999.14.7.1123pubmed: 10404012google scholar: lookup
  21. Jiang JX, Cheng B. Mechanical stimulation of gap junctions in bone osteocytes is mediated by prostaglandin E2.. Cell Commun Adhes 2001;8(4-6):283-8.
    doi: 10.3109/15419060109080738pubmed: 12064603google scholar: lookup
  22. Santos A, Bakker AD, Zandieh-Doulabi B, de Blieck-Hogervorst JM, Klein-Nulend J. Early activation of the beta-catenin pathway in osteocytes is mediated by nitric oxide, phosphatidyl inositol-3 kinase/Akt, and focal adhesion kinase.. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2010 Jan 1;391(1):364-9.
    doi: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2009.11.064pubmed: 19913504google scholar: lookup
  23. Riquelme MA, Burra S, Kar R, Lampe PD, Jiang JX. Mitogen-activated Protein Kinase (MAPK) Activated by Prostaglandin E2 Phosphorylates Connexin 43 and Closes Osteocytic Hemichannels in Response to Continuous Flow Shear Stress.. J Biol Chem 2015 Nov 20;290(47):28321-28328.
    doi: 10.1074/jbc.M115.683417pmc: PMC4653687pubmed: 26442583google scholar: lookup
  24. Plotkin LI, Mathov I, Aguirre JI, Parfitt AM, Manolagas SC, Bellido T. Mechanical stimulation prevents osteocyte apoptosis: requirement of integrins, Src kinases, and ERKs.. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2005 Sep;289(3):C633-43.
    doi: 10.1152/ajpcell.00278.2004pubmed: 15872009google scholar: lookup
  25. Kitase Y, Barragan L, Qing H, Kondoh S, Jiang JX, Johnson ML, Bonewald LF. Mechanical induction of PGE2 in osteocytes blocks glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis through both the β-catenin and PKA pathways.. J Bone Miner Res 2010 Dec;25(12):2657-68.
    doi: 10.1002/jbmr.168pmc: PMC3179278pubmed: 20578217google scholar: lookup
  26. You L, Temiyasathit S, Lee P, Kim CH, Tummala P, Yao W, Kingery W, Malone AM, Kwon RY, Jacobs CR. Osteocytes as mechanosensors in the inhibition of bone resorption due to mechanical loading.. Bone 2008 Jan;42(1):172-9.
    doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2007.09.047pmc: PMC2583402pubmed: 17997378google scholar: lookup
  27. Tu X, Rhee Y, Condon KW, Bivi N, Allen MR, Dwyer D, Stolina M, Turner CH, Robling AG, Plotkin LI, Bellido T. Sost downregulation and local Wnt signaling are required for the osteogenic response to mechanical loading.. Bone 2012 Jan;50(1):209-17.
    doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2011.10.025pmc: PMC3246572pubmed: 22075208google scholar: lookup
  28. Lin C, Jiang X, Dai Z, Guo X, Weng T, Wang J, Li Y, Feng G, Gao X, He L. Sclerostin mediates bone response to mechanical unloading through antagonizing Wnt/beta-catenin signaling.. J Bone Miner Res 2009 Oct;24(10):1651-61.
    doi: 10.1359/jbmr.090411pubmed: 19419300google scholar: lookup
  29. Nishijima Y, Yamaguchi M, Kojima T, Aihara N, Nakajima R, Kasai K. Levels of RANKL and OPG in gingival crevicular fluid during orthodontic tooth movement and effect of compression force on releases from periodontal ligament cells in vitro.. Orthod Craniofac Res 2006 May;9(2):63-70.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1601-6343.2006.00340.xpubmed: 16764680google scholar: lookup
  30. Tyrovola JB. The "Mechanostat Theory" of Frost and the OPG/RANKL/RANK System.. J Cell Biochem 2015 Dec;116(12):2724-9.
    doi: 10.1002/jcb.25265pubmed: 26096594google scholar: lookup
  31. Zhang C, Bakker AD, Klein-Nulend J, Bravenboer N. Studies on Osteocytes in Their 3D Native Matrix Versus 2D In Vitro Models.. Curr Osteoporos Rep 2019 Aug;17(4):207-216.
    doi: 10.1007/s11914-019-00521-1pmc: PMC6647862pubmed: 31240566google scholar: lookup
  32. Hughes JM, Petit MA. Biological underpinnings of Frost's mechanostat thresholds: the important role of osteocytes.. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact 2010 Jun;10(2):128-35.
    pubmed: 20516629
  33. Pontzer H, Raichlen DA, Gordon AD, Schroepfer-Walker KK, Hare B, O'Neill MC, Muldoon KM, Dunsworth HM, Wood BM, Isler K, Burkart J, Irwin M, Shumaker RW, Lonsdorf EV, Ross SR. Primate energy expenditure and life history.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014 Jan 28;111(4):1433-7.
    doi: 10.1073/pnas.1316940111pmc: PMC3910615pubmed: 24474770google scholar: lookup
  34. Brown JH, Gillooly JF, Allen AP, Savage VM, West GB. Toward a metabolic theory of ecology.. Ecology 2004;85:1771–1789.
    doi: 10.1890/03-9000google scholar: lookup
  35. Berghänel A, Schülke O, Ostner J. Locomotor play drives motor skill acquisition at the expense of growth: A life history trade-off.. Sci Adv 2015 Aug;1(7):e1500451.
    doi: 10.1126/sciadv.1500451pmc: PMC4643810pubmed: 26601237google scholar: lookup
  36. Sharpe LL, Clutton-Brock TH, Brotherton PNM, Cameron EZ, Cherry MI. Experimental provisioning increases play in free-ranging meerkats.. Anim. Behav. 2002;64:113–121.
    doi: 10.1006/anbe.2002.3031google scholar: lookup
  37. Byers JA, Walker C. Refining the motor training hypothesis for the evolution of play.. Am. Nat. 1995;146:25–40.
    doi: 10.1086/285785google scholar: lookup
  38. McDonnell SM, Poulin A. Equid play ethogram.. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 2002;78:263–290.
    doi: 10.1016/S0168-1591(02)00112-0google scholar: lookup
  39. Hampson BA, Pollit CC. GPS analysis of activity of domestic mares and newborn foals. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Equine Locomotion; Cabourg, France. 16–19 June 2008; p. 17.
  40. Hampson BA, Morton JM, Mills PC, Trotter MG, Lamb DW, Pollitt CC. Monitoring distances travelled by horses using GPS tracking collars.. Aust Vet J 2010 May;88(5):176-81.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2010.00564.xpubmed: 20529024google scholar: lookup
  41. Brama PA, Karssenberg D, Barneveld A, van Weeren PR. Contact areas and pressure distribution on the proximal articular surface of the proximal phalanx under sagittal plane loading.. Equine Vet J 2001 Jan;33(1):26-32.
    doi: 10.2746/042516401776767377pubmed: 11191606google scholar: lookup
  42. Davies HM, McCarthy RN, Jeffcott LB. Surface strain on the dorsal metacarpus of thoroughbreds at different speeds and gaits.. Acta Anat (Basel) 1993;146(2-3):148-53.
    doi: 10.1159/000147437pubmed: 8470458google scholar: lookup
  43. Davies HM. The timing and distribution of strains around the surface of the midshaft of the third metacarpal bone during treadmill exercise in one Thoroughbred racehorse.. Aust Vet J 2005 Mar;83(3):157-62.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2005.tb11628.xpubmed: 15825628google scholar: lookup
  44. Kurvers CM, van Weeren PR, Rogers CW, van Dierendonck MC. Quantification of spontaneous locomotion activity in foals kept in pastures under various management conditions.. Am J Vet Res 2006 Jul;67(7):1212-7.
    doi: 10.2460/ajvr.67.7.1212pubmed: 16817745google scholar: lookup
  45. Boy V, Duncan P. Time-budgets of Carmargue horses. 1. Developmental changes in the time budgets of foals.. Behaviour 1979;71:187–202.
    doi: 10.1163/156853979X00160google scholar: lookup
  46. Brama PA, Tekoppele JM, Bank RA, van Weeren PR, Barneveld A. Influence of different exercise levels and age on the biochemical characteristics of immature equine articular cartilage.. Equine Vet J Suppl 1999 Nov;(31):55-61.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb05314.xpubmed: 10999661google scholar: lookup
  47. Brama PA, TeKoppele JM, Bank RA, Barneveld A, van Weeren PR. Development of biochemical heterogeneity of articular cartilage: influences of age and exercise.. Equine Vet J 2002 May;34(3):265-9.
    doi: 10.2746/042516402776186146pubmed: 12108744google scholar: lookup
  48. van Weeren PR, Firth EC, Brommer H, Hyttinen MM, Helminen AE, Rogers CW, Degroot J, Brama PA. Early exercise advances the maturation of glycosaminoglycans and collagen in the extracellular matrix of articular cartilage in the horse.. Equine Vet J 2008 Mar;40(2):128-35.
    doi: 10.2746/042516408X253091pubmed: 18093892google scholar: lookup
  49. Dykgraaf S, Firth EC, Rogers CW, Kawcak CE. Effects of exercise on chondrocyte viability and subchondral bone sclerosis in the distal third metacarpal and metatarsal bones of young horses.. Vet J 2008 Oct;178(1):53-61.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2007.08.016pubmed: 17996470google scholar: lookup
  50. Barneveld A, van Weeren PR. Conclusions regarding the influence of exercise on the development of the equine musculoskeletal system with special reference to osteochondrosis.. Equine Vet J Suppl 1999 Nov;(31):112-9.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb05323.xpubmed: 10999670google scholar: lookup
  51. Firth EC, Rogers CW, van Weeren PR, Barneveld A, McIlwraith CW, Kawcak CE, Goodship AE, Smith RK. Mild exercise early in life produces changes in bone size and strength but not density in proximal phalangeal, third metacarpal and third carpal bones of foals.. Vet J 2011 Dec;190(3):383-9.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2010.11.016pubmed: 21186128google scholar: lookup
  52. Firth EC, Rogers CW, van Weeren PR, Barneveld A, McIlwraith CW, Kawcak CE, Goodship AE, Smith RK. The effect of previous conditioning exercise on diaphyseal and metaphyseal bone to imposition and withdrawal of training in young Thoroughbred horses.. Vet J 2012 Apr;192(1):34-40.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2011.05.016pubmed: 21855374google scholar: lookup
  53. Chalmers J, Ray RD. The growth of transplanted foetal bones in different immunological environments.. J. Bone Jt. Surg. Br. Vol. 1962;44:149–164.
    doi: 10.1302/0301-620X.44B1.149google scholar: lookup
  54. Frost HM. A 2003 update of bone physiology and Wolff's Law for clinicians.. Angle Orthod 2004 Feb;74(1):3-15.
    pubmed: 15038485doi: 10.1043/0003-3219(2004)074<0003:auobpa>2.0.co;2google scholar: lookup
  55. Robling AG. Is bone's response to mechanical signals dominated by muscle forces?. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2009 Nov;41(11):2044-9.
    doi: 10.1249/MSS.0b013e3181a8c702pmc: PMC3412134pubmed: 19812512google scholar: lookup
  56. Schoenau E. From mechanostat theory to development of the "Functional Muscle-Bone-Unit".. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact 2005 Jul-Sep;5(3):232-8.
    pubmed: 16172514
  57. Tagliaferri C, Wittrant Y, Davicco MJ, Walrand S, Coxam V. Muscle and bone, two interconnected tissues.. Ageing Res Rev 2015 May;21:55-70.
    doi: 10.1016/j.arr.2015.03.002pubmed: 25804855google scholar: lookup
  58. Back W, Smit LD, Schamhardt HC, Barneveld A. The influence of different exercise regimens on the development of locomotion in the foal.. Equine Vet J Suppl 1999 Nov;(31):106-11.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1999.tb05322.xpubmed: 10999669google scholar: lookup
  59. Clayton HM, Hobbs SJ. Ground Reaction Forces: The Sine Qua Non of Legged Locomotion.. J Equine Vet Sci 2019 May;76:25-35.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2019.02.022pubmed: 31084749google scholar: lookup
  60. Harrison SM, Whitton RC, Kawcak CE, Stover SM, Pandy MG. Relationship between muscle forces, joint loading and utilization of elastic strain energy in equine locomotion.. J Exp Biol 2010 Dec 1;213(Pt 23):3998-4009.
    doi: 10.1242/jeb.044545pubmed: 21075941google scholar: lookup
  61. Chateau H, Camus M, Holden-Douilly L, Falala S, Ravary B, Vergari C, Lepley J, Denoix JM, Pourcelot P, Crevier-Denoix N. Kinetics of the forelimb in horses circling on different ground surfaces at the trot.. Vet J 2013 Dec;198 Suppl 1:e20-6.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2013.09.028pubmed: 24511634google scholar: lookup
  62. Rogers CW, Rivero JLL, van Breda EAL, Sloet van Oldruitenborgh Oosterbaan M. ICEEP7–Workshop—Workload and Conditioning: Describing workload and scientific information on conditioning horses.. Equine Comp. Exerc. Physiol. 2007;4:1–6.
    doi: 10.1017/S1478061507727408google scholar: lookup
  63. Crowelldavis SL, Houpt KA, Kane L. Play development in Welsh pony (Equus-Caballus) foals.. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 1987;18:119–131.
    doi: 10.1016/0168-1591(87)90186-9google scholar: lookup
  64. Firth EC. The response of bone, articular cartilage and tendon to exercise in the horse.. J Anat 2006 Apr;208(4):513-26.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2006.00547.xpmc: PMC2100207pubmed: 16637875google scholar: lookup
  65. Brama PA, Tekoppele JM, Bank RA, Barneveld A, van Weeren PR. Functional adaptation of equine articular cartilage: the formation of regional biochemical characteristics up to age one year.. Equine Vet J 2000 May;32(3):217-21.
    doi: 10.2746/042516400776563626pubmed: 10836476google scholar: lookup
  66. Rogers CW, Firth EC, McIlwraith CW, Barneveld A, Goodship AE, Kawcak CE, Smith RK, van Weeren PR. Evaluation of a new strategy to modulate skeletal development in racehorses by imposing track-based exercise during growth: the effects on 2- and 3-year-old racing careers.. Equine Vet J 2008 Mar;40(2):119-27.
    doi: 10.2746/042516408X266088pubmed: 18093893google scholar: lookup

Citations

This article has been cited 5 times.
  1. Gibson MJ, Legg KA, Gee EK, Rogers CW. Race-Level Reporting of Incidents Using an Online System during Three Seasons (2019/2020-2021/2022) of Thoroughbred Flat Racing in New Zealand.. Animals (Basel) 2022 Nov 3;12(21).
    doi: 10.3390/ani12213028pubmed: 36359152google scholar: lookup
  2. Logan AA, Nielsen BD, Hiney KM, Robison CI, Manfredi JM, Buskirk DD, Popovich JM Jr. The Impact of Circular Exercise Diameter on Bone and Joint Health of Juvenile Animals.. Animals (Basel) 2022 May 27;12(11).
    doi: 10.3390/ani12111379pubmed: 35681842google scholar: lookup
  3. Rogers CW, Gee EK, Dittmer KE. Growth and Bone Development in the Horse: When Is a Horse Skeletally Mature?. Animals (Basel) 2021 Nov 29;11(12).
    doi: 10.3390/ani11123402pubmed: 34944179google scholar: lookup
  4. Campbell MLH. An Ethical Framework for the Use of Horses in Competitive Sport: Theory and Function.. Animals (Basel) 2021 Jun 9;11(6).
    doi: 10.3390/ani11061725pubmed: 34207809google scholar: lookup
  5. Veraa S, Scheffer CJW, Smeets DHM, de Bruin RB, Hoogendoorn AC, Vernooij JCM, Nielen M, Back W. Cervical disc width index is a reliable parameter and consistent in young growing Dutch Warmblood horses.. Vet Radiol Ultrasound 2020 Oct 13;62(1):11-9.
    doi: 10.1111/vru.12913pubmed: 33090577google scholar: lookup
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,344 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.