FREE SHIPPING over $40
OVER 10000 FIVE-STAR REVIEWS
5% OFF ALL SUBSCRIPTIONS
100% HAPPINESS GUARANTEE
Analyze Diet
0
Animals : an open access journal from MDPI2020; 10(12); 2203; doi: 10.3390/ani10122203

Viral Diseases that Affect Donkeys and Mules.

Abstract: Donkeys () and mules represent approximately 50% of the entire domestic equine herd in the world and play an essential role in the lives of thousands of people, primarily in developing countries. Despite their importance, donkeys are currently a neglected and threatened species due to abandonment, indiscriminate slaughter, and a lack of proper sanitary management. Specific knowledge about infectious viral diseases that affect this group of is still limited. In many cases, donkeys and mules are treated like horses, with the physiological differences between these species usually not taken into account. Most infectious diseases that affect the family are exclusive to the family, and they have a tremendous economic impact on the equine industry. However, some viruses may cross the species barrier and affect humans, representing an imminent risk to public health. Nevertheless, even with such importance, most studies are conducted on horses (), and there is little comparative information on infection in donkeys and mules. Therefore, the objective of this article is to provide a brief update on viruses that affect donkeys and mules, thereby compromising their performance and well-being. These diseases may put them at risk of extinction in some parts of the world due to neglect and the precarious conditions they live in and may ultimately endanger other species' health and humans.
Get Full Text
Publication Date: 2020-11-25 PubMed ID: 33255568PubMed Central: PMC7760297DOI: 10.3390/ani10122203Google Scholar: Lookup
The Equine Research Bank provides access to a large database of publicly available scientific literature. Inclusion in the Research Bank does not imply endorsement of study methods or findings by Mad Barn.
LinkedInCopy
  • Journal Article
  • Review

Summary

This research summary has been generated with artificial intelligence and may contain errors and omissions. Refer to the original study to confirm details provided. Submit correction.

This research article provides updated information on the various viruses that affect donkeys and mules, describing how these diseases jeopardize their health, performance, and even existence in certain regions. The article also discusses the potential risks to other species and humans posed by certain viruses that can cross the species barrier.

Context and Relevance of the Study

  • The study emphasizes the global importance of donkeys and mules, which constitute about 50% of the world’s domestic equine population and are particularly important in developing nations. However, despite their significance, these species are often neglected, with their health and well-being threatened by abandonment, inappropriate slaughter, and unsatisfactory sanitary conditions.
  • The research exposes a gap in the current understanding of the viral infections that affect donkeys and mules. Often, they are treated similarly to horses without considering the physiological differences between the species, which could lead to inadequate healthcare approaches.
  • The study draws attention to the possible economic consequences of diseases affecting the equine family, as well as the potential public health menace when some viruses cross the species barrier to impact humans.

Aims of the Study

  • The primary goal of this study is to furnish recent information on the viruses that affect donkeys and mules. This is aimed to improve understanding of the diseases adversely impacting their well-being and performance and leading to the risk of their extinction in certain regions due to neglect and extreme living conditions.
  • This research also elucidates the potential threats to other species and human health due to viruses that can breach the species barrier. It underlines the need for more targeted studies and comparative information on infections in donkeys and mules, in contrast to the prevalent focus on horses.

Cite This Article

APA
Câmara RJF, Bueno BL, Resende CF, Balasuriya UBR, Sakamoto SM, Reis JKPD. (2020). Viral Diseases that Affect Donkeys and Mules. Animals (Basel), 10(12), 2203. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10122203

Publication

Animals : an open access journal from MDPI
ISSN: 2076-2615
NlmUniqueID: 101635614
Country: Switzerland
Language: English
Volume: 10
Issue: 12
PII: 2203

Researcher Affiliations

Câmara, Rebeca Jéssica Falcão
  • Laboratório de Retroviroses, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Escola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil.
Bueno, Bruna Lopes
  • Laboratório de Retroviroses, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Escola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil.
Resende, Cláudia Fideles
  • Laboratório de Retroviroses, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Escola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil.
Balasuriya, Udeni B R
  • Louisiana Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory and Department of Pathobiological Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, River Rd, Room 1043, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA.
Sakamoto, Sidnei Miyoshi
  • Laboratório Multidisciplinar do Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Departamento de Ciências da Saúde (DCS), Universidade Federal Rural do Semi-Árido, Rio Grande do Norte 59625-900, Brazil.
Reis, Jenner Karlisson Pimenta Dos
  • Laboratório de Retroviroses, Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva, Escola de Veterinária, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

This article includes 197 references
  1. Jónsson H, Schubert M, Seguin-Orlando A, Ginolhac A, Petersen L, Fumagalli M, Albrechtsen A, Petersen B, Korneliussen TS, Vilstrup JT, Lear T, Myka JL, Lundquist J, Miller DC, Alfarhan AH, Alquraishi SA, Al-Rasheid KA, Stagegaard J, Strauss G, Bertelsen MF, Sicheritz-Ponten T, Antczak DF, Bailey E, Nielsen R, Willerslev E, Orlando L. Speciation with gene flow in equids despite extensive chromosomal plasticity.. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014 Dec 30;111(52):18655-60.
    doi: 10.1073/pnas.1412627111pmc: PMC4284605pubmed: 25453089google scholar: lookup
  2. Burden F, Thiemann A. Donkeys are different.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2015;35:376–382.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2015.03.005google scholar: lookup
  3. Matthews N, van Loon J.P.A.M. Anaesthesia and analgesia of the donkey and the mule.. Equine Vet. Educ. 2013;25:47–51.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2011.00312.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  4. Matthews N.S., Taylor T.S., Hartsfield S.M. Anaesthesia of donkeys and mules.. Equine Vet. Educ. 2010;15:102–107.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2005.tb01835.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  5. FAO FAOSTAT. [(accessed on 11 May 2020)]; Available online: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QA.
  6. Toribio RE. Dear Donkey and Mule: You Deserve More Appreciation and Better Medicine.. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2019 Dec;35(3):xiii-xiv.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2019.08.015pubmed: 31492447google scholar: lookup
  7. Camillo F, Rota A, Biagini L, Tesi M, Fanelli D, Panzani D. The Current Situation and Trend of Donkey Industry in Europe.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2018;65:44–49.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2017.11.008google scholar: lookup
  8. Orlando L, Ginolhac A, Zhang G, Froese D, Albrechtsen A, Stiller M, Schubert M, Cappellini E, Petersen B, Moltke I, Johnson PL, Fumagalli M, Vilstrup JT, Raghavan M, Korneliussen T, Malaspinas AS, Vogt J, Szklarczyk D, Kelstrup CD, Vinther J, Dolocan A, Stenderup J, Velazquez AM, Cahill J, Rasmussen M, Wang X, Min J, Zazula GD, Seguin-Orlando A, Mortensen C, Magnussen K, Thompson JF, Weinstock J, Gregersen K, Røed KH, Eisenmann V, Rubin CJ, Miller DC, Antczak DF, Bertelsen MF, Brunak S, Al-Rasheid KA, Ryder O, Andersson L, Mundy J, Krogh A, Gilbert MT, Kjær K, Sicheritz-Ponten T, Jensen LJ, Olsen JV, Hofreiter M, Nielsen R, Shapiro B, Wang J, Willerslev E. Recalibrating Equus evolution using the genome sequence of an early Middle Pleistocene horse.. Nature 2013 Jul 4;499(7456):74-8.
    doi: 10.1038/nature12323pubmed: 23803765google scholar: lookup
  9. Alberghina D, Fazio F, Arfuso F, Scianò S, Zumbo A, Piccione G. Reference intervals of serum protein concentrations from clinically healthy female Ragusana Donkeys (Equus asinus) determined by cellulose acetate electrophoresis.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2013;33:433–436.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2012.07.012google scholar: lookup
  10. Mendoza FJ, Perez-Ecija RA, Toribio RE, Estepa JC. Thyroid hormone concentrations differ between donkeys and horses.. Equine Vet J 2013 Mar;45(2):214-8.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.2012.00622.xpubmed: 22909401google scholar: lookup
  11. Evans L., Crane M., editors. The Clinical Companion of the Donkey. 1st ed. The Donkey Sanctuary; Devon, UK: 2018.
  12. Dunkel B. Disorders of the Hematopoietic System.. Equine Internal Medicine 2018. pp. 991–1028.
  13. OIE World Organisation for Animal Health. Terrestrial Animal Health Code. [(accessed on 8 November 2020)]; Available online: https://www.oie.int/index.php?id=169&L=0&htmfile=chapitre_diagnostic_tests.htm.
  14. Timoney PJ. Factors influencing the international spread of equine diseases.. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2000 Dec;16(3):537-51, x.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30094-9pubmed: 11219348google scholar: lookup
  15. Arbovirus Catalog—CDC Division of Vector-Borne Diseases (DVBD) [(accessed on 8 November 2020)]; Available online: https://wwwn.cdc.gov/arbocat/
  16. Center for Disease Control and Prevention Rabies (CDC). National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases (NCEZID), Division of High-Consequence Pathogens and Pathology. [(accessed on 8 November 2020)];2019 Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/rabies/
  17. Burbelo PD, Dubovi EJ, Simmonds P, Medina JL, Henriquez JA, Mishra N, Wagner J, Tokarz R, Cullen JM, Iadarola MJ, Rice CM, Lipkin WI, Kapoor A. Serology-enabled discovery of genetically diverse hepaciviruses in a new host.. J Virol 2012 Jun;86(11):6171-8.
    doi: 10.1128/JVI.00250-12pmc: PMC3372197pubmed: 22491452google scholar: lookup
  18. Issel CJ, Coggins L. Equine infectious anemia: current knowledge.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1979 Apr 1;174(7):727-33.
    pubmed: 218920
  19. Almeida V.M.A., Gonçalves V.S.P., Martins M.F., Haddad J.P.A., Dias R.A., Leite R.C., Reis J.K.P. Anemia infecciosa eqüina: Prevalência em eqüídeos de serviço em Minas Gerais.. Arq. Bras. Med. Vet. Zootec. 2006;58:141–148.
    doi: 10.1590/S0102-09352006000200001google scholar: lookup
  20. Maresca C, Scoccia E, Faccenda L, Zema J, Costarelli S. Equine Infectious Anemia: Active Surveillance in Central Italy 2007–2009.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2012;32:596–598.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2011.12.008google scholar: lookup
  21. Getachew M, Alemayehu F, Chala C, Amare B, Kassa D, Burden F, Wernery R, Wernery U. A cross-sectional sero-survey of some infectious diseases of working equids in Central Ethiopia.. J. Vet. Med. Anim. Health. 2014;6:231–238.
    doi: 10.5897/JVMAH2014google scholar: lookup
  22. Oliveira FG, Cook RF, Naves JHF, Oliveira CHS, Diniz RS, Freitas FJC, Lima JM, Sakamoto SM, Leite RC, Issel CJ, Reis JKP. Equine infectious anemia prevalence in feral donkeys from Northeast Brazil.. Prev Vet Med 2017 May 1;140:30-37.
    doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2017.02.015pubmed: 28460747google scholar: lookup
  23. Wegdan H.A., Sahar M.E., Ballal A, Intisar K.S., Shaza M.M., Algezoli O.A., Ihsan H.A., Baraa A.M., Taha K.M., Nada E.M.. Sero Prevalence of Equine Infectious Anemia (EIA) Virus in Selected Regions in Sudan.. Microbiol. Res. J. Int. 2017:1–6.
    doi: 10.9734/MRJI/2017/27451google scholar: lookup
  24. Cook RF, Leroux C, Issel CJ. Equine infectious anemia and equine infectious anemia virus in 2013: a review.. Vet Microbiol 2013 Nov 29;167(1-2):181-204.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.09.031pubmed: 24183747google scholar: lookup
  25. Williams DL, Issel CJ, Steelman CD, Adams WV Jr, Benton CV. Studies with equine infectious anemia virus: transmission attempts by mosquitoes and survival of virus on vector mouthparts and hypodermic needles, and in mosquito tissue culture.. Am J Vet Res 1981 Sep;42(9):1469-73.
    pubmed: 6119953
  26. Borges AM, Silva LG, Nogueira MF, Oliveira AC, Segri NJ, Ferreira F, Witter R, Aguiar DM. Prevalence and risk factors for Equine Infectious Anemia in Poconé municipality, northern Brazilian Pantanal.. Res Vet Sci 2013 Aug;95(1):76-81.
    doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2013.02.011pubmed: 23517766google scholar: lookup
  27. Bolfa P, Nolf M, Cadoré JL, Catoi C, Archer F, Dolmazon C, Mornex JF, Leroux C. Interstitial lung disease associated with Equine Infectious Anemia Virus infection in horses.. Vet Res 2013 Dec 1;44(1):113.
    doi: 10.1186/1297-9716-44-113pmc: PMC3879148pubmed: 24289102google scholar: lookup
  28. Bueno BL, Câmara RJF, Moreira MVL, Galinari GCF, Souto FM, Victor RM, Bicalho JM, Ecco R, Dos Reis JKP. Molecular detection, histopathological analysis, and immunohistochemical characterization of equine infectious anemia virus in naturally infected equids.. Arch Virol 2020 Jun;165(6):1333-1342.
    doi: 10.1007/s00705-020-04616-4pubmed: 32266552google scholar: lookup
  29. Cullinane A, Quinlivan M, Nelly M, Patterson H, Kenna R, Garvey M, Gildea S, Lyons P, Flynn M, Galvin P, Neylon M, Jankowska K. Diagnosis of equine infectious anaemia during the 2006 outbreak in Ireland.. Vet Rec 2007 Nov 10;161(19):647-52.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.161.19.647pubmed: 17993655google scholar: lookup
  30. Cook RF, Cook SJ, Berger SL, Leroux C, Ghabrial NN, Gantz M, Bolin PS, Mousel MR, Montelaro RC, Issel CJ. Enhancement of equine infectious anemia virus virulence by identification and removal of suboptimal nucleotides.. Virology 2003 Sep 1;313(2):588-603.
    doi: 10.1016/S0042-6822(03)00351-9pubmed: 12954224google scholar: lookup
  31. Russell KE, Walker KM, Miller RT, Sellon DC. Hyperglobulinemia and lymphocyte subset changes in naturally infected, inapparent carriers of equine infectious anemia virus.. Am J Vet Res 1998 Aug;59(8):1009-15.
    pubmed: 9706205
  32. Sellon DC. Equine infectious anemia.. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 1993 Aug;9(2):321-36.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30399-1pmc: PMC7126748pubmed: 8395326google scholar: lookup
  33. Issel CJ, Cook RF, Mealey RH, Horohov DW. Equine infectious anemia in 2014: live with it or eradicate it?. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2014 Dec;30(3):561-77.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2014.08.002pubmed: 25441114google scholar: lookup
  34. Leroux C, Cadoré JL, Montelaro RC. Equine Infectious Anemia Virus (EIAV): what has HIV's country cousin got to tell us?. Vet Res 2004 Jul-Aug;35(4):485-512.
    doi: 10.1051/vetres:2004020pubmed: 15236678google scholar: lookup
  35. Spyrou V, Papanastassopoulou M, Psychas V, Billinis Ch, Koumbati M, Vlemmas J, Koptopoulos G. Equine infectious anemia in mules: virus isolation and pathogenicity studies.. Vet Microbiol 2003 Aug 29;95(1-2):49-59.
    doi: 10.1016/S0378-1135(03)00151-2pubmed: 12860076google scholar: lookup
  36. Dong JB, Zhu W, Cook FR, Goto Y, Horii Y, Haga T. Development of a nested PCR assay to detect equine infectious anemia proviral DNA from peripheral blood of naturally infected horses.. Arch Virol 2012 Nov;157(11):2105-11.
    doi: 10.1007/s00705-012-1406-8pubmed: 22798044google scholar: lookup
  37. Cook SJ, Cook RF, Montelaro RC, Issel CJ. Differential responses of Equus caballus and Equus asinus to infection with two pathogenic strains of equine infectious anemia virus.. Vet Microbiol 2001 Mar 20;79(2):93-109.
    doi: 10.1016/S0378-1135(00)00348-5pubmed: 11230932google scholar: lookup
  38. Hvri-Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, CAAS. [(accessed on 12 May 2020)]; Available online: http://www.hvri.ac.cn/en/aboutus/athvri/index.htm.
  39. Shen R.X., Xu Z.D., HE YS Z.S. Development of a EIAV donkey leucocyte attenuated vaccine.. China Agric. Sci. 1979;4:1–15.
  40. Wang XF, Lin YZ, Li Q, Liu Q, Zhao WW, Du C, Chen J, Wang X, Zhou JH. Genetic Evolution during the development of an attenuated EIAV vaccine.. Retrovirology 2016 Feb 3;13:9.
    doi: 10.1186/s12977-016-0240-6pmc: PMC4738788pubmed: 26842878google scholar: lookup
  41. Yin X, Lin Y, Cai W, Wei P, Wang X. Comprehensive analysis of the overall codon usage patterns in equine infectious anemia virus.. Virol J 2013 Dec 20;10:356.
    doi: 10.1186/1743-422X-10-356pmc: PMC3878193pubmed: 24359511google scholar: lookup
  42. Tang YD, Na L, Fu LH, Yang F, Zhu CH, Tang L, Li Q, Wang JY, Li Z, Wang XF, Li CY, Wang X, Zhou JH. Double-stranded RNA-specific adenosine deaminase 1 (ADAR1) promotes EIAV replication and infectivity.. Virology 2015 Feb;476:364-371.
    doi: 10.1016/j.virol.2014.12.038pubmed: 25589239google scholar: lookup
  43. Tang YD, Zhang X, Na L, Wang XF, Fu LH, Zhu CH, Wang X, Zhou JH. Double-stranded-RNA-specific adenosine deaminase 1 (ADAR1) is proposed to contribute to the adaptation of equine infectious anemia virus from horses to donkeys.. Arch Virol 2016 Oct;161(10):2667-72.
    doi: 10.1007/s00705-016-2951-3pubmed: 27383210google scholar: lookup
  44. Wang HN, Rao D, Fu XQ, Hu MM, Dong JG. Equine infectious anemia virus in China.. Oncotarget 2018 Jan 2;9(1):1356-1364.
    doi: 10.18632/oncotarget.20381pmc: PMC5787444pubmed: 29416700google scholar: lookup
  45. Meng Q, Lin Y, Ma J, Ma Y, Zhao L, Li S, Liang H, Zhou J, Shen R, Zhang X, Shao Y. A pilot study on an attenuated Chinese EIAV vaccine inducing broadly neutralizing antibodies.. Arch Virol 2011 Aug;156(8):1455-62.
    doi: 10.1007/s00705-011-0992-1pubmed: 21499906google scholar: lookup
  46. Lin YZ, Shen RX, Zhu ZY, Deng XL, Cao XZ, Wang XF, Ma J, Jiang CG, Zhao LP, Lv XL, Shao YM, Zhou JH. An attenuated EIAV vaccine strain induces significantly different immune responses from its pathogenic parental strain although with similar in vivo replication pattern.. Antiviral Res 2011 Nov;92(2):292-304.
    doi: 10.1016/j.antiviral.2011.08.016pubmed: 21893100google scholar: lookup
  47. Italy Ordinanza Ministeriale 14 November 2006: Disposizioni Urgenti in Materia di Sorveglianza Dell’anemia Infettiva Degli Equidi. [(accessed on 8 November 2020)]; Available online: https://www.gazzettaufficiale.it/atto/serie_generale/caricaDettaglioAtto/originario?atto.dataPubblicazioneGazzetta=2006-12-07&atto.codiceRedazionale=06A11016&elenco30giorni=false.
  48. Diário Oficial da União. Federal Government of Brazil; Brasilia, Brazil: 2004. Brazil Portaria no. 378, de 17 de dezembro de 2014.
  49. USDA Equine Infectious Anemia: Uniform Methods and Rules. [(accessed on 8 November 2020)]; Available online: https://aws.state.ak.us/OnlinePublicNotices/Notices/Attachment.aspx?id=106877.
  50. . Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals.. 2019.
  51. Brasil Normas para Credenciamento e Monitoramento de Laboratórios de Diagnóstico de Anemia Infecciosa Equina. Secretaria de Defesa; Brasilia, Brazil: 2014. p. 136. Diário Oficial da República Federativa do Brasil.
  52. Issel CJ, Cook RF. A review of techniques for the serologic diagnosis of equine infectious anemia.. J Vet Diagn Invest 1993 Jan;5(1):137-41.
    doi: 10.1177/104063879300500136pubmed: 8385498google scholar: lookup
  53. Scicluna MT, Issel CJ, Cook FR, Manna G, Cersini A, Rosone F, Frontoso R, Caprioli A, Antognetti V, Autorino GL. Is a diagnostic system based exclusively on agar gel immunodiffusion adequate for controlling the spread of equine infectious anaemia?. Vet Microbiol 2013 Jul 26;165(1-2):123-34.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.02.027pubmed: 23618837google scholar: lookup
  54. Ricotti S, Garcia MI, Veaute C, Bailat A, Lucca E, Cook RF, Cook SJ, Soutullo A. Serologically silent, occult equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) infections in horses.. Vet Microbiol 2016 May 1;187:41-49.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2016.03.007pubmed: 27066707google scholar: lookup
  55. Cook RF, Barrandeguy M, Lee PA, Tsai CF, Shen YH, Tsai YL, Chang HG, Wang HT, Balasuriya UBR. Rapid detection of equine infectious anaemia virus nucleic acid by insulated isothermal RT-PCR assay to aid diagnosis under field conditions.. Equine Vet J 2019 Jul;51(4):489-494.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.13032pubmed: 30353944google scholar: lookup
  56. Issel CJ, Scicluna MT, Cook SJ, Cook RF, Caprioli A, Ricci I, Rosone F, Craigo JK, Montelaro RC, Autorino GL. Challenges and proposed solutions for more accurate serological diagnosis of equine infectious anaemia.. Vet Rec 2013 Feb 23;172(8):210.
    doi: 10.1136/vr-2012-100735pmc: PMC3593188pubmed: 23161812google scholar: lookup
  57. Chenchev I, Rusenova N, Sandev N. Seroepidemiological studies of donkeys’ blood for detection of some virus infections on ungulates.. Trakia J. Sci. 2011;9:82–86.
  58. . Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals.. 2018. pp. 1334–1349.
  59. Cook SJ, Li G, Zheng Y, Willand ZA, Issel CJ, Cook RF. Molecular Characterization of the Major Open Reading Frames (ORFs) and Enhancer Elements From Four Geographically Distinct North American Equine Infectious Anemia Virus (EIAV) Isolates.. J Equine Vet Sci 2020 Feb;85:102852.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2019.102852pubmed: 31952638google scholar: lookup
  60. Balasuriya UB, Go YY, MacLachlan NJ. Equine arteritis virus.. Vet Microbiol 2013 Nov 29;167(1-2):93-122.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.06.015pmc: PMC7126873pubmed: 23891306google scholar: lookup
  61. ICTV ICTV Taxonomy History: Alphaarterivirus Equid. [(accessed on 8 September 2020)]; Available online: https://talk.ictvonline.org/taxonomy/p/taxonomy-history?taxnode_id=201901827.
  62. Balasuriya U.B.R., Carossino M., Timoney P.J. Equine viral arteritis: A respiratory and reproductive disease of significant economic importance to the equine industry.. Equine Vet. Educ. 2018;30:497–512.
    doi: 10.1111/eve.12672google scholar: lookup
  63. Balasuriya UB, Snijder EJ, van Dinten LC, Heidner HW, Wilson WD, Hedges JF, Hullinger PJ, MacLachlan NJ. Equine arteritis virus derived from an infectious cDNA clone is attenuated and genetically stable in infected stallions.. Virology 1999 Jul 20;260(1):201-8.
    doi: 10.1006/viro.1999.9817pubmed: 10405372google scholar: lookup
  64. McCollum WH, Prickett ME, Bryans JT. Temporal distribution of equine arteritis virus in respiratory mucosa, tissues and body fluids of horses infected by inhalation.. Res Vet Sci 1971 Sep;12(5):459-64.
    doi: 10.1016/S0034-5288(18)34135-3pubmed: 4999643google scholar: lookup
  65. Guthrie AJ, Howell PG, Hedges JF, Bosman AM, Balasuriya UB, McCollum WH, Timoney PJ, MacLachlan NJ. Lateral transmission of equine arteritis virus among Lipizzaner stallions in South Africa.. Equine Vet J 2003 Sep;35(6):596-600.
    doi: 10.2746/042516403775467162pubmed: 14515961google scholar: lookup
  66. Timoney PJ, McCollum WH, Murphy TW, Roberts AW, Willard JG, Carswell GD. The carrier state in equine arteritis virus infection in the stallion with specific emphasis on the venereal mode of virus transmission.. J Reprod Fertil Suppl 1987;35:95-102.
    pubmed: 2824772
  67. Stadejek T, Mittelholzer Ch, Oleksiewicz MB, Paweska J, Belák S. Highly diverse type of equine arteritis virus (EAV) from the semen of a South African donkey: short communication.. Acta Vet Hung 2006 Jun;54(2):263-70.
    doi: 10.1556/AVet.54.2006.2.12pubmed: 16841763google scholar: lookup
  68. Rivas J, Neira V, Mena J, Brito B, Garcia A, Gutierrez C, Sandoval D, Ortega R. Identification of a divergent genotype of equine arteritis virus from South American donkeys.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2017 Dec;64(6):1655-1660.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.12703pubmed: 28921885google scholar: lookup
  69. Bolfa P, Jeon I, Loftis A, Leslie T, Marchi S, Sithole F, Beck C, Lecollinet S, Zientara S, Hans A, Issel CJ. Detection of West Nile Virus and other common equine viruses in three locations from the Leeward Islands, West Indies.. Acta Trop 2017 Oct;174:24-28.
    doi: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2017.06.023pubmed: 28648789google scholar: lookup
  70. De Souza Hunold Lara M.D.C.C., Villalobos E.M.C., Cunha E.M.S., De Oliveira J.V., de Castro Nassar A.F., Silva L.M.P., Okuda L., Nogueira A.H.C., Cunha M.S., Marques E.C.. Occurrence of viral diseases in donkeys (Equus asinus) in São Paulo State, Brazil.. Braz. J. Vet. Res. Anim. Sci. 2017;54:154.
    doi: 10.11606/issn.1678-4456.bjvras.2017.121241google scholar: lookup
  71. Gür S., Gürçay M., İrehan B., Turan T. Serological investigation of equine viral arteritis infection in donkeys and horses in the Eastern Anatolia Region.. Harran Üniver. Vet. Fakültesi Derg. 2018;7:186–191.
    doi: 10.31196/huvfd.508980google scholar: lookup
  72. Gür S., İrehan B., Gürçay M., Turan T. Serological investigation of equine viral arteritis in donkeys in eastern and south-eastern anatolia regions of Turkey.. Acta Vet. Brno. 2019;88:385–391.
    doi: 10.2754/avb201988040385google scholar: lookup
  73. McCollum WH, Timoney PJ, Tengelsen LA. Clinical, virological and serological responses of donkeys to intranasal inoculation with the KY-84 strain of equine arteritis virus.. J Comp Pathol 1995 Feb;112(2):207-11.
    doi: 10.1016/S0021-9975(05)80062-3pubmed: 7769149google scholar: lookup
  74. Paweska JT, Binns MM, Woods PS, Chirnside ED. A survey for antibodies to equine arteritis virus in donkeys, mules and zebra using virus neutralisation (VN) and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA).. Equine Vet J 1997 Jan;29(1):40-3.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3306.1997.tb01634.xpubmed: 9031862google scholar: lookup
  75. ICTV Genus: Hepacivirus-Flaviviridae-Positive-Sense RNA Viruses—International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) [(accessed on 5 June 2020)]; Available online: https://talk.ictvonline.org/ictv-reports/ictv_online_report/positive-sense-rna-viruses/w/flaviviridae/362/genus-hepacivirus.
  76. Pfaender S, Cavalleri JM, Walter S, Doerrbecker J, Campana B, Brown RJ, Burbelo PD, Postel A, Hahn K, Anggakusuma, Riebesehl N, Baumgärtner W, Becher P, Heim MH, Pietschmann T, Feige K, Steinmann E. Clinical course of infection and viral tissue tropism of hepatitis C virus-like nonprimate hepaciviruses in horses.. Hepatology 2015 Feb;61(2):447-59.
    doi: 10.1002/hep.27440pubmed: 25212983google scholar: lookup
  77. Walter S, Rasche A, Moreira-Soto A, Pfaender S, Bletsa M, Corman VM, Aguilar-Setien A, García-Lacy F, Hans A, Todt D, Schuler G, Shnaiderman-Torban A, Steinman A, Roncoroni C, Veneziano V, Rusenova N, Sandev N, Rusenov A, Zapryanova D, García-Bocanegra I, Jores J, Carluccio A, Veronesi MC, Cavalleri JMV, Drosten C, Lemey P, Steinmann E, Drexler JF. Differential Infection Patterns and Recent Evolutionary Origins of Equine Hepaciviruses in Donkeys.. J Virol 2017 Jan 1;91(1).
    doi: 10.1128/JVI.01711-16pmc: PMC5165184pubmed: 27795428google scholar: lookup
  78. Figueiredo AS, Lampe E, do Espírito-Santo MP, Mello FC, de Almeida FQ, de Lemos ER, Godoi TL, Dimache LA, Dos Santos DR, Villar LM. Identification of two phylogenetic lineages of equine hepacivirus and high prevalence in Brazil.. Vet J 2015 Dec;206(3):414-6.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2015.10.015pubmed: 26545848google scholar: lookup
  79. Gemaque BS, Junior Souza de Souza A, do Carmo Pereira Soares M, Malheiros AP, Silva AL, Alves MM, Gomes-Gouvêa MS, Pinho JR, Ferreira de Figueiredo H, Ribeiro DB, Souza da Silva J, Moraes LA, Ribeiro AS, Pereira WL. Hepacivirus infection in domestic horses, Brazil, 2011-2013.. Emerg Infect Dis 2014 Dec;20(12):2180-2.
    doi: 10.3201/eid2012.140603pmc: PMC4257787pubmed: 25420101google scholar: lookup
  80. Lu G, Sun L, Xu T, He D, Wang Z, Ou S, Jia K, Yuan L, Li S. First Description of Hepacivirus and Pegivirus Infection in Domestic Horses in China: A Study in Guangdong Province, Heilongjiang Province and Hong Kong District.. PLoS One 2016;11(5):e0155662.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0155662pmc: PMC4868292pubmed: 27182887google scholar: lookup
  81. Lyons S, Kapoor A, Sharp C, Schneider BS, Wolfe ND, Culshaw G, Corcoran B, McGorum BC, Simmonds P. Nonprimate hepaciviruses in domestic horses, United kingdom.. Emerg Infect Dis 2012 Dec;18(12):1976-82.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1812.120498pmc: PMC3557883pubmed: 23171728google scholar: lookup
  82. Elia G, Lanave G, Lorusso E, Parisi A, Cavaliere N, Patruno G, Terregino C, Decaro N, Martella V, Buonavoglia C. Identification and genetic characterization of equine hepaciviruses in Italy.. Vet Microbiol 2017 Aug;207:239-247.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2017.07.004pubmed: 28757030google scholar: lookup
  83. Schlottau K, Fereidouni S, Beer M, Hoffmann B. Molecular identification and characterization of nonprimate hepaciviruses in equines.. Arch Virol 2019 Feb;164(2):391-400.
    doi: 10.1007/s00705-018-4077-2pubmed: 30361815google scholar: lookup
  84. Pfaender S, Walter S, Todt D, Behrendt P, Doerrbecker J, Wölk B, Engelmann M, Gravemann U, Seltsam A, Steinmann J, Burbelo PD, Klawonn F, Feige K, Pietschmann T, Cavalleri JV, Steinmann E. Assessment of cross-species transmission of hepatitis C virus-related non-primate hepacivirus in a population of humans at high risk of exposure.. J Gen Virol 2015 Sep;96(9):2636-2642.
    doi: 10.1099/vir.0.000208pmc: PMC4857452pubmed: 26041875google scholar: lookup
  85. ICTV Herpesviridae—dsDNA Viruses—dsDNA Viruses. [(accessed on 11 May 2020)]; Available online: https://talk.ictvonline.org/ictv-reports/ictv_9th_report/dsdna-viruses-2011/w/dsdna_viruses/91/herpesviridae.
  86. Allen G.P., Kydd J.H., Slater J.D., Smith K.C. Equid Herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) and -4 (EHV-4) Infections. 2nd ed. Oxford Press; Cape Town, South Africa: 2004.
  87. Slater J. Equine Infectious Diseases. WB Saunders; Philadelphia, PA, USA: 2014. Equine herpesviruses; pp. 151–168.
  88. Fortier G, van Erck E, Pronost S, Lekeux P, Thiry E. Equine gammaherpesviruses: pathogenesis, epidemiology and diagnosis.. Vet J 2010 Nov;186(2):148-56.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2009.08.017pubmed: 19766026google scholar: lookup
  89. Fukushi H, Yamaguchi T, Yamada S. Complete genome sequence of equine herpesvirus type 9.. J Virol 2012 Dec;86(24):13822.
    doi: 10.1128/JVI.02607-12pmc: PMC3503125pubmed: 23166237google scholar: lookup
  90. Garvey M, Suárez NM, Kerr K, Hector R, Moloney-Quinn L, Arkins S, Davison AJ, Cullinane A. Equid herpesvirus 8: Complete genome sequence and association with abortion in mares.. PLoS One 2018;13(2):e0192301.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0192301pmc: PMC5802896pubmed: 29414990google scholar: lookup
  91. Izume S, Kirisawa R, Ohya K, Ohnuma A, Kimura T, Omatsu T, Katayama Y, Mizutani T, Fukushi H. The full genome sequences of 8 equine herpesvirus type 4 isolates from horses in Japan.. J Vet Med Sci 2017 Jan 24;79(1):206-212.
    doi: 10.1292/jvms.16-0506pmc: PMC5289262pubmed: 27840393google scholar: lookup
  92. King A.M., Lefkowitz E., Adams M.J., Carstens E.B., editors. Virus Taxonomy: Ninth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Elsevier; Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 2011. Family Herpesviridae; pp. 111–122.
  93. Sijmons S, Vissani A, Tordoya MS, Muylkens B, Thiry E, Maes P, Matthijnssens J, Barrandeguy M, Van Ranst M. Complete genome sequence of equid herpesvirus 3.. Genome Announc 2014 Oct 2;2(5).
    doi: 10.1128/genomeA.00797-14pmc: PMC4183863pubmed: 25278519google scholar: lookup
  94. Wilkie GS, Kerr K, Stewart JP, Studdert MJ, Davison AJ. Genome sequences of equid herpesviruses 2 and 5.. Genome Announc 2015 Mar 12;3(2).
    doi: 10.1128/genomeA.00119-15pmc: PMC4357765pubmed: 25767243google scholar: lookup
  95. Back H, Kendall A, Grandón R, Ullman K, Treiberg-Berndtsson L, Ståhl K, Pringle J. Equine multinodular pulmonary fibrosis in association with asinine herpesvirus type 5 and equine herpesvirus type 5: a case report.. Acta Vet Scand 2012 Sep 25;54(1):57.
    doi: 10.1186/1751-0147-54-57pmc: PMC3511884pubmed: 23009194google scholar: lookup
  96. Scheurer L, Bachofen C, Herteman N, Hilbe M, Wolfer N, Schoster A. A case series highlighting the role of different gamma-herpesviruses in Equine Multinodular Pulmonary Fibrosis.. Schweiz Arch Tierheilkd 2020 Apr;162(4):245-256.
    doi: 10.17236/sat00255pubmed: 32234694google scholar: lookup
  97. Patel JR, Heldens J. Equine herpesviruses 1 (EHV-1) and 4 (EHV-4)--epidemiology, disease and immunoprophylaxis: a brief review.. Vet J 2005 Jul;170(1):14-23.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2004.04.018pubmed: 15993786google scholar: lookup
  98. Mendoza F.J., Toribio R.E., Perez-Ecija A. Donkey Internal Medicine—Part II: Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Neurologic, Urinary, Ophthalmic, Dermatology, and Musculoskeletal Disorders.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2018;65:86–97.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2018.02.025google scholar: lookup
  99. Kapoor S., Sharma H., Singh M., Ranjan K., Patel S.V., Kumar P., Kumari A., Khirbat R. Equine Herpesviruses: A Brief Review.. Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci. 2014;2:46–54.
    doi: 10.14737/journal.aavs/2014/2.2s.46.54google scholar: lookup
  100. Thiemann A.K. Respiratory disease in the donkey.. Equine Vet. Educ. 2012;24:469–478.
    doi: 10.1111/j.2042-3292.2011.00292.xgoogle scholar: lookup
  101. Negussie H, Gizaw D, Tessema TS, Nauwynck HJ. Equine Herpesvirus-1 Myeloencephalopathy, an Emerging Threat of Working Equids in Ethiopia.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2017 Apr;64(2):389-397.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.12377pubmed: 26010868google scholar: lookup
  102. Mori E, Lara Mdo C, Cunha EM, Villalobos EM, Mori CM, Soares RM, Brandão PE, Fernandes WR, Richtzenhain LJ. Molecular characterization of Brazilian equid herpesvirus type 1 strains based on neuropathogenicity markers.. Braz J Microbiol 2015 Jun;46(2):565-70.
    doi: 10.1590/S1517-838246220140096pmc: PMC4507552pubmed: 26273275google scholar: lookup
  103. Pusterla N, Hussey GS. Equine herpesvirus 1 myeloencephalopathy.. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2014 Dec;30(3):489-506.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cveq.2014.08.006pubmed: 25300635google scholar: lookup
  104. Ataseven VS, Dağalp SB, Güzel M, Başaran Z, Tan MT, Geraghty B. Prevalence of equine herpesvirus-1 and equine herpesvirus-4 infections in equidae species in Turkey as determined by ELISA and multiplex nested PCR.. Res Vet Sci 2009 Apr;86(2):339-44.
    doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2008.06.001pubmed: 18649902google scholar: lookup
  105. De Souza Hunold Lara M.d.C.C., Torelli C.S., Cunha E.M.S., Villalobos E.M.C., Cunha M.S., Bello A.C.P.P., Cunha A.P., Reis J.K.P., Leite R.C., Mori E. Serological survey of equine herpesvirus infection in Minas Gerais state.. Braz. J. Vet. Res. Anim. Sci. 2010;47:352–356.
    doi: 10.1590/S1413-95962010000500003google scholar: lookup
  106. Abdelgawad A, Hermes R, Damiani A, Lamglait B, Czirják GÁ, East M, Aschenborn O, Wenker C, Kasem S, Osterrieder N, Greenwood AD. Comprehensive Serology Based on a Peptide ELISA to Assess the Prevalence of Closely Related Equine Herpesviruses in Zoo and Wild Animals.. PLoS One 2015;10(9):e0138370.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138370pmc: PMC4574707pubmed: 26378452google scholar: lookup
  107. Pusterla N, Mapes S, Akana N, Barnett C, MacKenzie C, Gaughan E, Craig B, Chappell D, Vaala W. Prevalence factors associated with equine herpesvirus type 1 infection in equids with upper respiratory tract infection and/or acute onset of neurological signs from 2008 to 2014.. Vet Rec 2016 Jan 16;178(3):70.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.103424pubmed: 26607427google scholar: lookup
  108. Yildirim Y, Yilmaz V, Kirmizigul AH. Equine herpes virus type 1 (EHV-1) and 4 (EHV-4) infections in horses and donkeys in northeastern Turkey.. Iran J Vet Res 2015 Fall;16(4):341-4.
    doi: 10.22099/ijvr.2015.3285pmc: PMC4782672pubmed: 27175200google scholar: lookup
  109. Wegdan H., Intisar K., Shaza M., Algezoli O., Ballal A., Ihsan H., Sahar M., Baraa A., Manal H., Muna E.. Serological Detection of Equine Herpes Virus (EHV) Type 1 and 4 in Sudan.. Br. Microbiol. Res. J. 2016;14:1–6.
    doi: 10.9734/BMRJ/2016/25803google scholar: lookup
  110. Ali S., Mohammadi G. Detection of equine herpesvirus-1 and equine herpesvirus-4 in mules and donkeys by real time PCR.. Vet. Pract. 2016;17:160–163.
  111. Mekonnen A., Eshetu A., Gizaw D. Equine herpesvirus 1 and/or 4 in working equids: Seroprevalence and risk factors in North Shewa Zone, Ethiopia.. Ethiop. Vet. J. 2017;21:28.
    doi: 10.4314/evj.v21i2.3google scholar: lookup
  112. Vengust M, Wen X, Bienzle D. Herpesvirus-associated neurological disease in a donkey.. J Vet Diagn Invest 2008 Nov;20(6):820-3.
    doi: 10.1177/104063870802000620pubmed: 18987238google scholar: lookup
  113. Kleiboeker SB, Schommer SK, Johnson PJ, Ehlers B, Turnquist SE, Boucher M, Kreeger JM. Association of two newly recognized herpesviruses with interstitial pneumonia in donkeys (Equus asinus).. J Vet Diagn Invest 2002 Jul;14(4):273-80.
    doi: 10.1177/104063870201400401pubmed: 12152805google scholar: lookup
  114. Bell SA, Pusterla N, Balasuriya UB, Mapes SM, Nyberg NL, MacLachlan NJ. Isolation of a gammaherpesvirus similar to asinine herpesvirus-2 (AHV-2) from a mule and a survey of mules and donkeys for AHV-2 infection by real-time PCR.. Vet Microbiol 2008 Jul 27;130(1-2):176-83.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2007.12.013pubmed: 18280676google scholar: lookup
  115. Browning GF, Ficorilli N, Studdert MJ. Asinine herpesvirus genomes: comparison with those of the equine herpesviruses.. Arch Virol 1988;101(3-4):183-90.
    doi: 10.1007/BF01310999pubmed: 2845891google scholar: lookup
  116. Barrandeguy M.E., Carossino M. Infectious Diseases in Donkeys and Mules: An Overview and Update.. J. Equine Vet. Sci. 2018;65:98–105.
    doi: 10.1016/j.jevs.2018.02.026google scholar: lookup
  117. Go YY, Balasuriya UB, Lee CK. Zoonotic encephalitides caused by arboviruses: transmission and epidemiology of alphaviruses and flaviviruses.. Clin Exp Vaccine Res 2014 Jan;3(1):58-77.
    doi: 10.7774/cevr.2014.3.1.58pmc: PMC3890452pubmed: 24427764google scholar: lookup
  118. Angenvoort J, Brault AC, Bowen RA, Groschup MH. West Nile viral infection of equids.. Vet Microbiol 2013 Nov 29;167(1-2):168-80.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.08.013pmc: PMC4581842pubmed: 24035480google scholar: lookup
  119. World Organization For Animal Health (OIE) OIE Technical Disease Cards. World Organization for Animal Health; Paris, France: 2019. Japanese Encephalitis.
  120. Aleman M., Nout-Lomas Y.S., Reed S.M. Disorders of the Neurologic System.. Equine Internal Medicine 2018. pp. 580–708.
  121. Tauro L, Marino B, Diaz LA, Lucca E, Gallozo D, Spinsanti L, Contigiani M. Serological detection of St. Louis encephalitis virus and West Nile virus in equines from Santa Fe, Argentina.. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2012 Jun;107(4):553-6.
    doi: 10.1590/S0074-02762012000400019pubmed: 22666870google scholar: lookup
  122. Barba M, Fairbanks EL, Daly JM. Equine viral encephalitis: prevalence, impact, and management strategies.. Vet Med (Auckl) 2019;10:99-110.
    doi: 10.2147/VMRR.S168227pmc: PMC6689664pubmed: 31497528google scholar: lookup
  123. Chakravarti SK, Sardana DN, Mukherjee KK, Mitra AC, Chakrabarty MS. Serological evidence of infection with Japanese encephalitis virus in mules of eastern Himalayan region.. Indian J Med Res 1981 Jan;73:4-7.
    pubmed: 6263798
  124. Zohaib A, Saqib M, Beck C, Hussain MH, Lowenski S, Lecollinet S, Sial A, Asi MN, Mansoor MK, Saqalein M, Sajid MS, Ashfaq K, Muhammad G, Cao S. High prevalence of West Nile virus in equines from the two provinces of Pakistan.. Epidemiol Infect 2015 Jul;143(9):1931-5.
    doi: 10.1017/S0950268814002878pubmed: 25358382google scholar: lookup
  125. OIE OIE World Animal Health Information System. [(accessed on 10 May 2020)]; Available online: https://www.oie.int/wahis_2/public/wahid.php/Diseaseinformation/reportarchive.
  126. Campbell GL, Hills SL, Fischer M, Jacobson JA, Hoke CH, Hombach JM, Marfin AA, Solomon T, Tsai TF, Tsu VD, Ginsburg AS. Estimated global incidence of Japanese encephalitis: a systematic review.. Bull World Health Organ 2011 Oct 1;89(10):766-74, 774A-774E.
    doi: 10.2471/BLT.10.085233pmc: PMC3209971pubmed: 22084515google scholar: lookup
  127. Zhu M, Weng Q. China: Will the donkey become the next pangolin?. Equine Vet J 2018 Mar;50(2):276.
    doi: 10.1111/evj.12769pubmed: 29164660google scholar: lookup
  128. Thompson NN, Auguste AJ, Coombs D, Blitvich BJ, Carrington CV, da Rosa AP, Wang E, Chadee DD, Drebot MA, Tesh RB, Weaver SC, Adesiyun AA. Serological evidence of flaviviruses and alphaviruses in livestock and wildlife in Trinidad.. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2012 Nov;12(11):969-78.
    doi: 10.1089/vbz.2012.0959pmc: PMC3491626pubmed: 22989182google scholar: lookup
  129. Carrera JP, Bagamian KH, Travassos da Rosa AP, Wang E, Beltran D, Gundaker ND, Armien B, Arroyo G, Sosa N, Pascale JM, Valderrama A, Tesh RB, Vittor AY, Weaver SC. Human and Equine Infection with Alphaviruses and Flaviviruses in Panamá during 2010: A Cross-Sectional Study of Household Contacts during an Encephalitis Outbreak.. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2018 Jun;98(6):1798-1804.
    doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.17-0679pmc: PMC6086197pubmed: 29737271google scholar: lookup
  130. Burgueño A, Spinsanti L, Díaz LA, Rivarola ME, Arbiza J, Contigiani M, Delfraro A. Seroprevalence of St. Louis encephalitis virus and West Nile virus (Flavivirus, Flaviviridae) in horses, Uruguay.. Biomed Res Int 2013;2013:582957.
    doi: 10.1155/2013/582957pmc: PMC3891745pubmed: 24490165google scholar: lookup
  131. Barbosa Costa G, Marinho PES, Vilela APP, Saraiva-Silva AT, Crispim APC, Borges IA, Dutra AGS, Lobato ZIP, Dos Reis JKP, de Oliveira DB, Drumond BP, Kroon EG, Trindade GS. Silent Circulation of the Saint Louis Encephalitis Virus among Humans and Equids, Southeast Brazil.. Viruses 2019 Nov 5;11(11).
    doi: 10.3390/v11111029pmc: PMC6893452pubmed: 31694207google scholar: lookup
  132. Pauvolid-Corrêa A, Campos Z, Juliano R, Velez J, Nogueira RM, Komar N. Serological evidence of widespread circulation of West Nile virus and other flaviviruses in equines of the Pantanal, Brazil.. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014 Feb;8(2):e2706.
    doi: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002706pmc: PMC3923745pubmed: 24551266google scholar: lookup
  133. Murgue B, Murri S, Zientara S, Durand B, Durand JP, Zeller H. West Nile outbreak in horses in southern France, 2000: the return after 35 years.. Emerg Infect Dis 2001 Jul-Aug;7(4):692-6.
    doi: 10.3201/eid0704.017417pmc: PMC2631744pubmed: 11585534google scholar: lookup
  134. Silva ASG, Matos ACD, da Cunha MACR, Rehfeld IS, Galinari GCF, Marcelino SAC, Saraiva LHG, Martins NRDS, Maranhão RPA, Lobato ZIP, Pierezan F, Guedes MIMC, Costa EA. West Nile virus associated with equid encephalitis in Brazil, 2018.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2019 Jan;66(1):445-453.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.13043pubmed: 30318735google scholar: lookup
  135. Salazar P, Traub-Dargatz JL, Morley PS, Wilmot DD, Steffen DJ, Cunningham WE, Salman MD. Outcome of equids with clinical signs of West Nile virus infection and factors associated with death.. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2004 Jul 15;225(2):267-74.
    doi: 10.2460/javma.2004.225.267pubmed: 15323385google scholar: lookup
  136. Yildirim Y., Yilmaz V., Yazici K., Özic C., Ozkul A. Molecular and serological investigation of West Nile virus (WNV) infection in donkeys, horses and native geese in Turkey.. Rev. Med. Vet. 2018;169:87–92.
  137. Mehmet K., Sibel G., Orhan Y., Nuri M., Sibel Y., Sibel H., Oya B., Metin G. Serological investigation of West Nile Virus infection in domestic horses and donkeys in Turkey.. Pak. Vet. J. 2017;37:51–54.
  138. Bargaoui R, Lecollinet S, Lancelot R. Mapping the serological prevalence rate of West Nile fever in equids, Tunisia.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2015 Feb;62(1):55-66.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.12077pubmed: 23906318google scholar: lookup
  139. Baba S.S., NNnadi O.D., Hamman K.D., Saidu A., El-Yuguda A., Oderinde B.S. Preliminary Study on the Prevalence of West Nile Virus Antibody among Horses, Donkeys and Camels in Borno State, Nigeria.. J. Appl. Virol. 2014;3:39–45.
    doi: 10.21092/jav.v3i2.43google scholar: lookup
  140. Davoust B, Maquart M, Roqueplo C, Gravier P, Sambou M, Mediannikov O, Leparc-Goffart I. Serological Survey of West Nile Virus in Domestic Animals from Northwest Senegal.. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2016 May;16(5):359-61.
    doi: 10.1089/vbz.2015.1881pubmed: 27002305google scholar: lookup
  141. Lafri I, Prat CM, Bitam I, Gravier P, Besbaci M, Zeroual F, Ben-Mahdi MH, Davoust B, Leparc-Goffart I. Seroprevalence of West Nile virus antibodies in equids in the North-East of Algeria and detection of virus circulation in 2014.. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 2017 Feb;50:8-12.
    doi: 10.1016/j.cimid.2016.11.005pubmed: 28131384google scholar: lookup
  142. Azmi K, Tirosh-Levy S, Manasrah M, Mizrahi R, Nasereddin A, Al-Jawabreh A, Ereqat S, Abdeen Z, Lustig Y, Gelman B, Schvartz G, Steinman A. West Nile Virus: Seroprevalence in Animals in Palestine and Israel.. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2017 Aug;17(8):558-566.
    doi: 10.1089/vbz.2016.2090pubmed: 28628400google scholar: lookup
  143. Selim A., Radwan A., Arnaout F., Khater H. The Recent Update of the Situation of West Nile Fever among Equids in Egypt after Three Decades of Missing Information.. Pak. Vet. J. 2020;8318.
    doi: 10.29261/pakvetj/2020.008google scholar: lookup
  144. Pradel J, Chalvet Monfray K, Molia S, Vachiéry N, Rousteau A, Imbert D, Martinez D, Sabatier P, Lefrançois T. Risk factors for West Nile virus seropositivity of equids in Guadeloupe.. Prev Vet Med 2009 Nov 1;92(1-2):71-8.
    doi: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2009.07.001pubmed: 19664833google scholar: lookup
  145. Alonso-Padilla J, Loza-Rubio E, Escribano-Romero E, Córdoba L, Cuevas S, Mejía F, Calderón R, Milián F, Travassos Da Rosa A, Weaver SC, Estrada-Franco JG, Saiz JC. The continuous spread of West Nile virus (WNV): seroprevalence in asymptomatic horses.. Epidemiol Infect 2009 Aug;137(8):1163-8.
    doi: 10.1017/S0950268809002325pubmed: 19288961google scholar: lookup
  146. Ometto T, Durigon EL, de Araujo J, Aprelon R, de Aguiar DM, Cavalcante GT, Melo RM, Levi JE, de Azevedo Júnior SM, Petry MV, Neto IS, Serafini P, Villalobos E, Cunha EM, Lara Mdo C, Nava AF, Nardi MS, Hurtado R, Rodrigues R, Sherer AL, Sherer Jde F, Geraldi MP, de Seixas MM, Peterka C, Bandeira Dde S, Pradel J, Vachiery N, Labruna MB, de Camargo LM, Lanciotti R, Lefrançois T. West Nile virus surveillance, Brazil, 2008-2010.. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2013 Nov;107(11):723-30.
    doi: 10.1093/trstmh/trt081pubmed: 24008895google scholar: lookup
  147. García-Bocanegra I, Arenas-Montes A, Jaén-Téllez JA, Napp S, Fernández-Morente M, Arenas A. Use of sentinel serosurveillance of mules and donkeys in the monitoring of West Nile virus infection.. Vet J 2012 Nov;194(2):262-4.
    doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2012.04.017pubmed: 22633828google scholar: lookup
  148. Lecollinet S, Pronost S, Coulpier M, Beck C, Gonzalez G, Leblond A, Tritz P. Viral Equine Encephalitis, a Growing Threat to the Horse Population in Europe?. Viruses 2019 Dec 24;12(1).
    doi: 10.3390/v12010023pmc: PMC7019608pubmed: 31878129google scholar: lookup
  149. Timoney PJ. Equine influenza.. Comp Immunol Microbiol Infect Dis 1996 Jun;19(3):205-11.
    doi: 10.1016/0147-9571(96)00006-9pubmed: 8800546google scholar: lookup
  150. Tellier R. Review of aerosol transmission of influenza A virus.. Emerg Infect Dis 2006 Nov;12(11):1657-62.
    doi: 10.3201/eid1211.060426pmc: PMC3372341pubmed: 17283614google scholar: lookup
  151. Ferguson L, Olivier AK, Genova S, Epperson WB, Smith DR, Schneider L, Barton K, McCuan K, Webby RJ, Wan XF. Pathogenesis of Influenza D Virus in Cattle.. J Virol 2016 Jun 15;90(12):5636-5642.
    doi: 10.1128/JVI.03122-15pmc: PMC4886773pubmed: 27030270google scholar: lookup
  152. Webster RG, Bean WJ, Gorman OT, Chambers TM, Kawaoka Y. Evolution and ecology of influenza A viruses.. Microbiol Rev 1992 Mar;56(1):152-79.
    doi: 10.1128/MMBR.56.1.152-179.1992pmc: PMC372859pubmed: 1579108google scholar: lookup
  153. Oxburgh L, Berg M, Klingeborn B, Emmoth E, Linné T. Evolution of H3N8 equine influenza virus from 1963 to 1991.. Virus Res 1994 Nov;34(2):153-65.
    doi: 10.1016/0168-1702(94)90097-3pubmed: 7545975google scholar: lookup
  154. Cullinane A, Newton JR. Equine influenza--a global perspective.. Vet Microbiol 2013 Nov 29;167(1-2):205-14.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2013.03.029pubmed: 23680107google scholar: lookup
  155. Singh RK, Dhama K, Karthik K, Khandia R, Munjal A, Khurana SK, Chakraborty S, Malik YS, Virmani N, Singh R, Tripathi BN, Munir M, van der Kolk JH. A Comprehensive Review on Equine Influenza Virus: Etiology, Epidemiology, Pathobiology, Advances in Developing Diagnostics, Vaccines, and Control Strategies.. Front Microbiol 2018;9:1941.
    doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.01941pmc: PMC6135912pubmed: 30237788google scholar: lookup
  156. van Maanen C, Cullinane A. Equine influenza virus infections: an update.. Vet Q 2002 Jun;24(2):79-94.
    doi: 10.1080/01652176.2002.9695127pubmed: 12095083google scholar: lookup
  157. Landolt GA, Olsen CW. Up to new tricks - a review of cross-species transmission of influenza A viruses.. Anim Health Res Rev 2007 Jun;8(1):1-21.
    doi: 10.1017/S1466252307001272pubmed: 17692139google scholar: lookup
  158. Yang H, Xiao Y, Meng F, Sun F, Chen M, Cheng Z, Chen Y, Liu S, Chen H. Emergence of H3N8 equine influenza virus in donkeys in China in 2017.. Vet Microbiol 2018 Feb;214:1-6.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2017.11.033pubmed: 29408020google scholar: lookup
  159. Shortridge KF. Influenza, Hong Kong, and the China Traveler.. J Travel Med 1995 Dec 1;2(4):257-259.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1708-8305.1995.tb00672.xpubmed: 9815404google scholar: lookup
  160. Thiemann A.K., Bell N.J. The Peculiarities of Donkey Respiratory Disease.. Equine Respir. Dis. 2001.
    doi: 10.1378/chest.13-1306google scholar: lookup
  161. Rose MA, Round MC, Beveridge WI. Influenza in horses and donkeys in Britain, 1969.. Vet Rec 1970 Jun 27;86(26):768-9.
    doi: 10.1136/vr.86.26.768pubmed: 5531098google scholar: lookup
  162. Qi T, Guo W, Huang W, Dai L, Zhao L, Li H, Li X, Zhang X, Wang Y, Yan Y, He N, Xiang W. Isolation and genetic characterization of H3N8 equine influenza virus from donkeys in China.. Vet Microbiol 2010 Aug 26;144(3-4):455-60.
    doi: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2010.01.006pubmed: 20153940google scholar: lookup
  163. Yongfeng Y, Xiaobo S, Nan X, Jingwen Z, Wenqiang L. Detection of the epidemic of the H3N8 subtype of the equine influenza virus in large-scale donkey farms.. Int J Vet Sci Med 2020;8(1):26-30.
    doi: 10.1080/23144599.2020.1739844pmc: PMC7170389pubmed: 32341914google scholar: lookup
  164. Pica N, Palese P. Toward a universal influenza virus vaccine: prospects and challenges.. Annu Rev Med 2013;64:189-202.
    doi: 10.1146/annurev-med-120611-145115pubmed: 23327522google scholar: lookup
  165. Wong SS, Webby RJ. Traditional and new influenza vaccines.. Clin Microbiol Rev 2013 Jul;26(3):476-92.
    doi: 10.1128/CMR.00097-12pmc: PMC3719499pubmed: 23824369google scholar: lookup
  166. Reed S.M., Bayly W.M., Sellon D.C., editors. Equine Internal Medicine. 4th ed. Elsevier; St. Louis, MO, USA: 2018.
  167. King A.M., Lefkowitz E., Adams M.J., Carstens E.B., editors. Virus Taxonomy: Ninth Report of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. 1st ed. Elsevier; Amsterdam, The Netherlands: 2011.
  168. OIE OIE-Listed Diseases 2020: OIE—World Organisation for Animal Health. [(accessed on 29 September 2020)]; Available online: https://www.oie.int/animal-health-in-the-world/oie-listed-diseases-2020/
  169. Johnson N, Phillpotts R, Fooks AR. Airborne transmission of lyssaviruses.. J Med Microbiol 2006 Jun;55(Pt 6):785-790.
    doi: 10.1099/jmm.0.46370-0pubmed: 16687600google scholar: lookup
  170. Green SL. Rabies.. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 1997 Apr;13(1):1-11.
    doi: 10.1016/S0749-0739(17)30251-1pubmed: 9106339google scholar: lookup
  171. Hemachudha T, Tirawatnpong S, Phanthumchinda K. Seizures as the initial manifestation of paralytic rabies.. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989 Jun;52(6):808-10.
    doi: 10.1136/jnnp.52.6.808pmc: PMC1032049pubmed: 2501458google scholar: lookup
  172. Hudson LC, Weinstock D, Jordan T, Bold-Fletcher NO. Clinical presentation of experimentally induced rabies in horses.. Zentralbl Veterinarmed B 1996 Jul;43(5):277-85.
    doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0450.1996.tb00315.xpubmed: 8779809google scholar: lookup
  173. Numan M, Qureshi ZA, Shauket M, Hashmi HA, Iqbal M, Gill ZJ, Habib M, Siddique M. Rabies out-break in mules at Mansehra, Pakistan.. Res Vet Sci 2011 Feb;90(1):160-2.
    doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2010.04.020pubmed: 20483443google scholar: lookup
  174. Droussi H., El Amrani D., Dlimi M., Elatiqi K., Boukind S., Exadaktylos A.K., Weiner S., Ettalbi S. Domestic donkey (Equus africanus asinus) bites: An unusual aetiology of severe scalp injuries in Morocco.. Afr. J. Emerg. Med. 2014;4:e5–e8.
    doi: 10.1016/j.afjem.2014.05.007google scholar: lookup
  175. Feng Y, Shi Y, Yu M, Xu W, Gong W, Tu Z, Ding L, He B, Guo H, Tu C. Livestock rabies outbreaks in Shanxi province, China.. Arch Virol 2016 Oct;161(10):2851-4.
    doi: 10.1007/s00705-016-2982-9pubmed: 27422397google scholar: lookup
  176. Sheth SS, Gharpure V, Nair K, Nadkarni UB, Deshmukh CT, Desai AP, Jain MK, Shah MD. Fatal rabies encephalomyelitis despite chick embryo vaccine prophylaxis.. Indian Pediatr 1992 Jun;29(6):766-9.
    pubmed: 1500140
  177. Badiali L, Ferris DH. A preliminary report on rabies in suspected equine encephalomyelitis cases in the United Arab Republic.. Bull World Health Organ 1966;34(5):797-8.
    pmc: PMC2476007pubmed: 5296239
  178. Fekadu M. Rabies in Ethiopia.. Am J Epidemiol 1982 Feb;115(2):266-73.
    doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113298pubmed: 7058785google scholar: lookup
  179. Kariuki D.P., Ngulo W.K. Epidemiology of Animal Rabies in Kenya (1900–1983). Rabies Trop. 1985:451–464.
    doi: 10.1007/978-3-642-70060-6_59google scholar: lookup
  180. Tabel H, Corner AH, Webster WA, Casey CA. History and epizootiology of rabies in Canada.. Can Vet J 1974 Oct;15(10):271-81.
    pmc: PMC1696688pubmed: 4608858
  181. Stromberg ZR, Fischer W, Bradfute SB, Kubicek-Sutherland JZ, Hraber P. Vaccine Advances against Venezuelan, Eastern, and Western Equine Encephalitis Viruses.. Vaccines (Basel) 2020 Jun 3;8(2).
    doi: 10.3390/vaccines8020273pmc: PMC7350001pubmed: 32503232google scholar: lookup
  182. Spickler A.R. Eastern, Western and Venezuelan Equine Encephalomyelitis. [(accessed on 7 September 2020)]; Available online: http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/DiseaseInfo/factsheets.php.
  183. World Organization For Animal Health (OIE) Terrestrial Manual 2019. World Organization for Animal Health; Paris, France: 2019. Equine Encephalomyelitis.
  184. Franklin RP, Kinde H, Jay MT, Kramer LD, Green EG, Chiles RE, Ostlund E, Husted S, Smith J, Parker MD. Eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus infection in a horse from California.. Emerg Infect Dis 2002 Mar;8(3):283-8.
    doi: 10.3201/eid0803.010199pmc: PMC2732474pubmed: 11927026google scholar: lookup
  185. The Center for Food Security & Public Health Equine Encephalitis. [(accessed on 8 September 2020)]; Available online: http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/FastFacts/pdfs/easter_wester_venezuelan_equine_encephalomyelitis_F.pdf.
  186. Randall R, Mills JW. FATAL ENCEPHALITIS IN MAN DUE TO THE VENEZUELAN VIRUS OF EQUINE ENCEPHALOMYELITIS IN TRINIDAD.. Science 1944 Mar 17;99(2568):225-6.
    pubmed: 17844380doi: 10.1126/science.99.2568.225google scholar: lookup
  187. Silva ML, Galiza GJ, Dantas AF, Oliveira RN, Iamamoto K, Achkar SM, Riet-Correa F. Outbreaks of Eastern equine encephalitis in northeastern Brazil.. J Vet Diagn Invest 2011 May;23(3):570-5.
    doi: 10.1177/1040638711403414pubmed: 21908293google scholar: lookup
  188. Thompson GM, Jess S, Murchie AK. A review of African horse sickness and its implications for Ireland.. Ir Vet J 2012 Jul 5;65(1):9.
    doi: 10.1186/2046-0481-65-9pmc: PMC3390273pubmed: 22553991google scholar: lookup
  189. Meiswinkel R, Paweska JT. Evidence for a new field Culicoides vector of African horse sickness in South Africa.. Prev Vet Med 2003 Aug 28;60(3):243-53.
    doi: 10.1016/S0167-5877(02)00231-3pubmed: 12900162google scholar: lookup
  190. Zientara S, Weyer CT, Lecollinet S. African horse sickness.. Rev Sci Tech 2015 Aug;34(2):315-27.
    doi: 10.20506/rst.34.2.2359pubmed: 26601437google scholar: lookup
  191. Mellor P.S., Baylis M., Hamblin C. In: African Horse Sickness. 1st ed. Mertens P.P., editor. Volume 53. Springer; New York, NY, USA: 1998.
  192. Gordon SJG, Bolwell C, Rogers CW, Musuka G, Kelly P, Guthrie A, Mellor PS, Hamblin C. The sero-prevalence and sero-incidence of African horse sickness and equine encephalosis in selected horse and donkey populations in Zimbabwe.. Onderstepoort J Vet Res 2017 May 10;84(1):e1-e5.
    doi: 10.4102/ojvr.v84i1.1445pmc: PMC6238669pubmed: 28582979google scholar: lookup
  193. Teshome M., Addis M., Temesgen W. Seroprevalence and risk factors of African horse sickness in mules and donkeys in selected sites of West Amhara Region, Ethiopia.. African J. Microbiol. Res. 2012;6.
    doi: 10.5897/ajmr11.1475google scholar: lookup
  194. Rodriguez M, Hooghuis H, Castaño M. African horse sickness in Spain.. Vet Microbiol 1992 Nov;33(1-4):129-42.
    doi: 10.1016/0378-1135(92)90041-Qpubmed: 1481352google scholar: lookup
  195. Lu G, Pan J, Ou J, Shao R, Hu X, Wang C, Li S. African horse sickness: Its emergence in Thailand and potential threat to other Asian countries.. Transbound Emerg Dis 2020 May 14;.
    doi: 10.1111/tbed.13625pubmed: 32406171google scholar: lookup
  196. Gilbert M, Nicolas G, Cinardi G, Van Boeckel TP, Vanwambeke SO, Wint GRW, Robinson TP. Global distribution data for cattle, buffaloes, horses, sheep, goats, pigs, chickens and ducks in 2010.. Sci Data 2018 Oct 30;5:180227.
    doi: 10.1038/sdata.2018.227pmc: PMC6207061pubmed: 30375994google scholar: lookup
  197. National Bureau of Statistics of China Latest Release. [(accessed on 7 September 2020)]; Available online: http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/zxfb/index_1.html.

Citations

This article has been cited 15 times.
Subscribe to our newsletter
Join 99,970 horse owners like you who receive our email updates on horse health and nutrition.