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Topic:Anatomy
Anatomy in horses encompasses the study of the structural organization of the equine body, including the bones, muscles, organs, and systems that function together to sustain life and enable movement. Understanding equine anatomy is important for veterinarians, equine scientists, and horse owners, as it provides insights into how horses move, how they respond to external stimuli, and how various conditions can affect their health and performance. Key anatomical features in horses include the musculoskeletal system, which provides support and locomotion; the cardiovascular system, which circulates blood and nutrients; and the respiratory system, which facilitates gas exchange. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the detailed anatomy of horses, focusing on the structure and function of different body systems, their interrelationships, and their relevance to equine health, performance, and veterinary care.
Equine Endometrial Gland Density and Endometrial Thickness Vary among Sampling Sites in Thoroughbred Mares. The secretions of the equine endometrial glands are essential for the survival, growth, and development of the conceptus in early pregnancy, and endometrial gland density is directly related to successful pregnancy outcome. Endometrial biopsy is routinely used to assess the reproductive potential of broodmares. Some previous studies have shown that equine endometrial glands are uniformly distributed throughout the uterus; however, other work has shown variation of the endometrial architecture between biopsy sites, suggesting that a single biopsy is not representative of the entire endometrium....
Digital radiography for the equine practitioner: basic principles and recent advances. As availability increases and cost decreases, digital radiograph systems become more common in equine practice. Technological advances provide an array of choices for the equine practitioner considering purchase. Two classes of systems are available: computed radiography and flat-panel systems (direct radiography). Image processing encompasses all manipulations performed on an image at acquisition and can have a profound effect on the final digital radiograph. Consideration should be given to the type of display monitor because many options are now available. The type of display monitor and th...
Computed tomographic arthrography of the equine stifle joint. Computed tomographic arthrography is an imaging technique used for the evaluation of the internal structures of a joint, especially the soft tissues and subchondral bone defects that may communicate with the joint space. Clinical indications, technical aspects, principles of image interpretation, and advantages and disadvantages of this imaging technique for the evaluation of the equine stifle joint are discussed in this article.
Light microscopic evaluation and scanning electron microscopic analysis of horse eyes following deep anterior lamellar keratectomy. OBJECTIVE To describe the technique of deep anterior lamellar keratoplasty (DALK) with Descemet's membrane (DM) exposure in horse eyes. Also, to compare the efficacy and safety of viscodissection and big-bubble techniques for DALK. ANIMALS STUDIED Thirty-four ex vivo horse eyes. PROCEDURE Deep anterior lamellar keratoplasty was performed in 34 ex vivo horse eyes. Two groups (Group V--viscodissection--2% sodium hyaluronate; Group A--air--big-bubble) of 17 eyes were studied. Other than the substance used, the surgical technique was similar for both groups. Nonperforated eyes were submit...
64, XX, SRY-negative, testicular DSD syndrome in a Lusitano horse. Here is reported a disorder of sex development found in the Portuguese Lusitano horse breed. The complex genital phenotype included mammary glands, abdominal testes without epididymis, connected through oviducts to pelvic hypoplastic uterine horns and fused vulvar labia majora from which protruded ventrally a penis-like structure. This structure was presented in a reversed position, the urethral opening placed dorsally in the glans. However, it was functional both for micturition and erection. The horse exhibited female micturition posture and aggressive male-like behaviour, including flehmen,...
Ultrasound-guided retrobulbar nerve block in horses: a cadaveric study. To develop an ultrasound-guided technique for retrobulbar nerve block in horses, and to compare the distribution of three different volumes of injected contrast medium (CM) (4, 8 and 12 mL), with the hypothesis that successful placement of the needle within the retractor bulbi muscle cone would lead to the most effective dispersal of CM towards the nerves leaving the orbital fissure. Methods: Prospective experimental cadaver study. Methods: Twenty equine cadavers. Methods: Ultrasound-guided retrobulbar injections were performed in 40 cadaver orbits. Ultrasound visualization of needle placement...
The histological appearance of the proximal aspect of the dorsal condylar sagittal ridge of the third metacarpal and metatarsal bone in young warmblood horses: normal appearance and correlation with detected radiographic variations. The objective of this study is to describe the normal histological appearance of the dorsoproximal aspect of the sagittal ridge of the third metacarpal/metatarsal bone in young Warmblood horses, and to compare it to the different radiographic variations (irregular, indentation, lucency, notch) described at this level. A total of 25 metacarpo/metatarsophalangeal joints of 12 Warmblood horses were used. Five samples of each radiographically described group were selected for histological processing. Each category was compared with the normal control group. Each group showed a bone cortex, covered...
Fatal musculoskeletal injuries of Quarter Horse racehorses: 314 cases (1990-2007). To determine major causes of death and the anatomic location of musculoskeletal injuries in Quarter Horse racehorses in California. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: 314 Quarter Horse racehorses with musculoskeletal injuries that were necropsied through the California Horse Racing Board Postmortem Program from 1990 to 2007. Methods: Postmortem pathology reports were retrospectively reviewed. Musculoskeletal injuries were categorized by anatomic region and described. The number of Quarter Horse starts and starters for the same period of time were obtained from a commercial database f...
Magnetic resonance imaging of pulp in normal and diseased equine cheek teeth. A retrospective analysis of 619 upper and lower cheek teeth from 62 horses was performed. Based on clinical findings, as well as radiographic and magnetic resonance (MR) imaging findings, the teeth were classified into five groups. There were 20 teeth with abnormal MR imaging signals as well as clinical alterations and 599 healthy teeth. Using MR imaging, the appearance of pulp in diseased and disease-free teeth was compared, and the appearance of abnormal pulp was studied. Subsequently, the ability of MR imaging to diagnose pulpitis and pulp necrosis in teeth with normal external appearance w...
The dental cavities of equine cheek teeth: three-dimensional reconstructions based on high resolution micro-computed tomography. Recent studies reported on the very complex morphology of the pulp system in equine cheek teeth. The continuous production of secondary dentine leads to distinct age-related changes of the endodontic cavity. Detailed anatomical knowledge of the dental cavities in all ages is required to explain the aetiopathology of typical equine endodontic diseases. Furthermore, data on mandibular and maxillary pulp systems is in high demand to provide a basis for the development of endodontic therapies. However, until now examination of the pulp cavity has been based on either sectioned teeth or clinical co...
Magnetic resonance imaging features of sinonasal disorders in horses. Diseases of paranasal sinuses and nasal passages in horses can be a diagnostic challenge because of the complex anatomy of the head and limitations of many diagnostic modalities. Our hypothesis was that magnetic resonance (MR) imaging would provide excellent anatomical detail and soft tissue resolution, and would be accurate in the diagnosis of diseases of the paranasal sinuses and nasal passages in horses. Fourteen horses were imaged. Inclusion criteria were lesions located to the sinuses or nasal passages that underwent MR imaging and subsequent surgical intervention and/or histopathologic e...
The basics of farriery as a prelude to therapeutic farriery. Domesticated horses need hoof care, because it is rare for wear and growth of the hooves to be in perfect equilibrium. During the shoeing interval, the hoof grows downwards and forward in the direction of the horn tubules, losing some degree of angle. Few horses have perfect limb conformation. The shape of a hoof of a limb with conformation defects adapts in a predictable way. If, for therapeutic or performance reasons, the hoof-shoe combination is modified, there is a not a lot of leeway in the trim of a particular foot, whereas the applied shoe type, placement, and adjustments provide endles...
Farriery for hoof wall defects: quarter cracks and toe cracks. Conditions that result in the loss of the structural integrity of the hoof wall, such as quarter and toe cracks, are not uncommon and usually manifest in lameness. The successful management of these problems involves identifying and addressing the underlying causes, stabilization of the foot, and committed follow-up.
Therapeutic farriery: one veterinarian’s perspective. Therapeutic shoeing is best directed at a specific diagnosis, but in the absence of a specific diagnosis, it is frequently directed at a symptom. There are only so many ways to modify the function of the foot with trimming and shoeing. The design of a horse shoe may often be modified to improve one aspect of foot function. Modifying a horse shoe to improve one aspect of foot function almost invariably impacts another aspect of foot function. The application of horse shoes may be based on a specific diagnosis or directed at a symptom. The application of shoeing principles is best approached usi...
Diagnostic sensitivity of subjective and quantitative laryngeal ultrasonography for recurrent laryngeal neuropathy in horses. Recurrent laryngeal neuropathy (RLN) is the most common cause of laryngeal hemiplegia in horses and causes neurogenic atrophy of the intrinsic laryngeal muscles, including the cricoarytenoideus lateralis muscle. Recurrent laryngeal neuropathy results in paresis to paralysis of the vocal fold and arytenoid cartilage, which limits performance through respiratory compromise. Ultrasound has previously been reported to be a useful diagnostic technique in horses with RLN. In this report, the diagnostic sensitivity of subjective and quantitative laryngeal ultrasonography was evaluated in 154 horses p...
Treating laminitis: beyond the mechanics of trimming and shoeing. Laminitis is typically classified into developmental or prodromal, acute, subacute, and chronic phases. Scientific evidence regarding the pathophysiology of laminitis does exist, but it is often conflicting and dependent on the clinician's interpretation/understanding of the study or the model used for inducing laminitis. The diagnosis of laminitis consists of obtaining an accurate history, performing a thorough physical examination, and taking good-quality radiographs. The use of radiographs for diagnosis and interpretation of laminitis is an absolute necessity for the clinician. Laminitis is...
Acupuncture Points of the Horse’s Distal Thoracic Limb: A Neuroanatomic Approach to the Transposition of Traditional Points. Veterinary acupuncture charts were developed based on the concept of transpositional points whereby human acupuncture maps were adapted to animal anatomy. Transpositional acupuncture points have traditionally been placed in specific locations around the horse's coronet and distal limb believed to be the closest approximation to the human distal limb points. Because the horse has a single digit and lacks several structures analogous to the human hand and foot, precisely transposing all of the human digital points is not anatomically possible. To date there is no published research on the effect...
Variation in foot conformation in lame horses with different foot lesions. Foot conformation in the horse is commonly thought to be associated with lameness but scientific evidence is scarce although it has been shown in biomechanical studies that foot conformation does influence the forces acting on the deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) and the navicular bone (NB). The aim of this study was to determine the relationships between foot conformation and different types of lesion within the foot in lame horses. It was hypothesised that certain conformation parameters differ significantly between different types of foot lesions. Conformation parameters were measured on m...
Modified Kuhnt-Szymanowski surgical procedure for secondary cicatricial ectropion in a horse. A 1-year-old Dutch Warmblood gelding was presented to the University of Florida's Large Animal Hospital (UF-LAH) for correction of ectropion of the right lower eyelid. The ectropion was the result of a lower eyelid laceration. A primary repair was performed by the referring veterinarian; however, the horse prematurely removed the sutures and the wound healed with inversion of the eyelid margin. Surgical correction of the entropion, with removal of tissue from the lower eyelid, resulted in cicatricial ectropion. During the initial evaluation at UF-LAH, a corneal ulcer was noted in the right eye...
Morphology of twin and triplet equine conceptuses during weeks 3 and 4 of pregnancy. Twin ovulations are common in horses, but twin pregnancies are rarely carried to term. Theories of how one or both twins is/are naturally eliminated in early pregnancy, termed 'embryo reduction', have been based on ultrasonographic, not morphological, studies. Here we describe conceptuses recovered transcervically between Days 15 and 28 from 31 twin and two triplet pregnancies. Signs of contact between conceptuses were deduced from those seen in one pair that remained attached by their capsules on Day 18. Signs were found on capsules in two of 10 pairs before or during fixation (immobilisation...
Finite element analysis of stress in the equine proximal phalanx. To improve understanding of the internal structure of the proximal phalanx (P1), response of the bone to load and possible relation to the pathogenesis of fractures in P1. Objective: To model the P1 and replicate the loads experienced by the bone in stance, walk, trot and gallop using finite element analysis. Methods: The geometry of the P1 was captured using micro-computed tomography (μCT) and was reconstructed in 3 dimensions. Values for material properties and forces experienced at stance, walk, trot and gallop were taken from the literature and were applied to the reconstructed model. Usi...
Healing of multiple fractured thoracic dorsal spinous processes in a Quarter horse. A Quarter horse gelding sustained fracture and displacement of spinous processes T2-T10. Radiographic evidence of healing was seen 3 mo following injury, and at 2 years post-injury all spinous processes had healed and undergone partial re-alignment. This re-alignment has not been reported before. Un hongre Quarter horse a subi une fracture et un déplacement des apophyses épineuses T2–T10. Les preuves radiographiques de la guérison ont été observées 3 mois après la blessure et 2 ans après la blessure toutes les apophyses épineuses avaient guéri et subi un réalignement partiel. Ce ...
A preliminary study into the correlation of stiffness of the laminar junction of the equine hoof with the length density of its secondary lamellae. The relationship between mechanical behaviour and microscopic structure of the laminar junction of equine hooves under testing conditions requires elucidation. Objective: To determine mechanical parameters and 2D length density of profiles of secondary lamellae of the laminar junction in the dermal region and to assess possible correlations. Methods: Specimens (25 samples in total) of the laminar junction were taken from front, quarter and heel parts from 3 equine hooves and exposed to a uniaxial tensile test until rupture to obtain Young's moduli of elasticity, ultimate stress and strain. Nei...
Time-of-flight magnetic resonance angiography (TOF-MRA) of the normal equine head. Noncontrast magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) is widely used in human and small animal medicine. However, this technique has not yet been described in the horse, and compared to other angiographic techniques MRA could be more cost efficient and potentially safer. Objective: The aim of this study was to provide a comprehensive anatomical reference of the normal equine head vasculature using a noncontrast MRA technique, on both low- and high-field MRI. Methods: Five healthy adult horses were examined, 4 with a low-field magnet (0.23T) and the remaining one with a high-field magnet (1.5T). The...
Pyogranulomatous lesion causing neurological signs localised to the sacral region in a horse. This case report describes neurological signs associated with a pyogranulomatous lesion within the sacral vertebral canal of a horse. The clinical findings included urinary overflow incontinence and reduced anal, perianal and tail tone. The horse failed to respond to medical management and a guarded prognosis for return to athletic performance initiated the decision for euthanasia.
The effect of varying echo time using T2-weighted FSE sequences on the magic angle effect in the collateral ligaments of the distal interphalangeal joint in horses. Eight skeletally mature equine cadaver distal forelimbs were imaged using T2-weighted fast spin echo (FSE) sequences in a 1.0 T horizontal bore magnet. Each limb was parallel to the main magnetic field and with 16° angulation of the limb relative to the main magnetic field, which places one of the collateral ligaments of the distal interphalangeal joint at or near the magic angle. Each limb was imaged using an echo time (TE) of 80, 100, 120, and 140 ms. Reversal of the magic angle effect was achieved at echo time of 140 ms. However, given the alterations in tissue contrast and subjective decr...
A descriptive study of the equine proximal interphalangeal joint using magnetic resonance imaging, contrast arthrography, and arthroscopy. To describe regions of the thoracic and pelvic limb proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joints that are arthroscopically accessible and identify soft tissue structures that should be avoided during arthroscope and instrument placement. Methods: Experimental ex vivo descriptive study. Methods: Horses (n = 15). Methods: Cadaver limbs (n = 36) were used for anatomic modeling, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with MRI-compatible needles, computed tomography with contrast arthrography, and arthroscopy of the PIP joint. Two arthroscopic approaches to the dorsal joint pouch were compared. Results: With ar...
