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Topic:Biomechanics
Biomechanics in horses refers to the study of the mechanical principles that govern movement and physical function in equine species. This field encompasses the analysis of gait, locomotion, and the forces exerted by and upon the horse's musculoskeletal system. Biomechanical studies often involve the use of motion capture technology, force plates, and computer modeling to assess how horses move and how various factors, such as conformation, training, and health status, influence their performance and soundness. Research in equine biomechanics contributes to understanding injury prevention, rehabilitation, and performance optimization. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the mechanics of movement, the impact of external and internal forces, and the applications of biomechanical analysis in equine care and management.
Pressure on the horse’s withers with three styles of blanket. The objective of this study was to compare total force and localised pressure on horses' withers with three blanket styles (straight cut, V-shaped insert, cutback withers). Three pressure recordings, each of 5s duration, were taken in order to determine blanket pressure on the withers during standing and walking in 12 horses. Means+/-SD were calculated for the following variables and compared across blankets: total force, mean pressure, maximal pressure, and area with pressure >4 kPa. For standing trials, the blanket with the V-shaped insert had the lowest total force and smallest area with...
Weighted boots influence performance in show-jumping horses. This study investigated the effects of weighted boots on horses (n=6) jumping a 1.25 m oxer fence. The horses had similar training experience and were assigned to two groups of three subjects (groups G1 and G2). All horses performed 10 jumping efforts: G1 horses made attempts 1-5 without boots and 6-10 with boots; G2 made attempts 1-5 with boots and 6-10 without boots. Data were available via sagittal plane S-VHS recordings and t test analyses focussed on limb-placement dimensions. There were no differences among performances of the horses in the horizontal plane, but there were significant di...
Effects on behaviour and rein tension on horses ridden with or without martingales and rein inserts. Unsteady hand position can cause discomfort to the horse, potentially leading to conflict behaviours (CB) such as head tossing or tail lashing. Some instructors feel that martingales or elastic rein inserts can reduce discomfort caused by inexperienced and unsteady hands. Others consider these devices to be inappropriate 'crutches'. Four horses and nine riders were tested under three conditions in random order: plain reins, adjustable training martingales (TM), and elasticised rein inserts (RI). Rein-tension data (7s) and behavioural data (30s) were collected in each direction. Rein-tension da...
SMART: Sensitivity models for animals in response to training. Trained responses are said to be under stimulus control when they appear reliably and exclusively on cue. The SMART system is a conceptual, three-dimensional graphic that uses four quadrants to chart a horse's responsiveness to various cues from two reins and the trainer's legs and seat. The current plots have been designed for ridden horses. The models assume that the trainer's cues are bilaterally equivalent, unless the intention is to signal a turn or a lateral movement. The extent to which 'go' signals manifest as straight, forward locomotion reflect the bilateral balance of the horse's re...
A preliminary study into rider asymmetry within equitation. Rider asymmetry is anecdotally associated with underperformance and injury. In this study, rider axial rotation (AR) and shoulder angle displacement (SAD) were measured using video analysis, and leg length inequality (LLI) was measured to assess any correlation between LLI, AR and SAD. Two video cameras, recording transverse and sagittal views, simultaneously filmed each of 17 female riders in walk, trot, and left and right canter. The rider's shoulder angles relative to the cranial caudal line were measured at each limb impact for a complete stride cycle. All riders exhibited left AR and a gr...
The influence of different saddle pads on force and pressure changes beneath saddles with excessively wide trees. This study was performed to investigate the forces and pressure distribution under different saddle pads when an excessively wide saddle is used. Eighteen sound horses were ridden on a treadmill at walk and trot. The horses were equipped with a dressage saddle with an excessively wide saddle tree and four different pads (gel, leather, foam and reindeer-fur) used sequentially. For comparison, one measurement was made without a saddle pad. A pressure mat under the pad was used for the collection of kinetic data. Kinematics from the right fore-hoof were required to synchronise the data with the s...
Effect of hyaluronic acid amide derivative on equine synovial fluid viscoelasticity. An amphiphilic hyaluronic acid (HA) derivative has been obtained by the amidation of the carboxylic group of the glucuronic acid. This derivative, HYADD4-G (HY4), is the hexadecylamide of 500-730 kDa hyaluronic acid, derived from Streptococcus equi at about 2% degree of substitution (2 mol hexadecylamine per 100 mol hexuronic acid). Its viscoelastic properties, at a concentration of 5 mg/mL in phosphate buffer saline, have been compared with those solutions of native HA, having the same molecular weight. Changes in the viscoelastic properties of equine synovial fluid (SF) when mixed with HY4 o...
Use of kinetic gait analysis for detection, quantification, and differentiation of hind limb lameness and spinal ataxia in horses. To evaluate use of kinetic gait analysis for detection, quantification, and differentiation of hind limb lameness and spinal ataxia in horses. Methods: Prospective clinical study. Methods: 36 horses. Procedures-Kinetic gait analysis with a force plate was performed for 12 clinically normal horses, 12 horses with hind limb lameness, and 12 horses with spinal ataxia. Kinetic variables were compared among groups, correlated to subjective grading, and used to build predictive models to assess the accuracy of discrimination. Results: Subsets of kinetic variables were characteristically altered in a...
Characterization of the magic angle effect in the equine deep digital flexor tendon using a low-field magnetic resonance system. Three isolated equine limbs were imaged with a low-field magnetic resonance system with a vertical magnetic field. Each limb was scanned in multiple positions with mild variation of the angle between the magnetic field and the long axis of the limb. When the long axis of the limb was not perpendicular to the magnetic field, a linear hyperintense signal was present at the palmar aspect of one of the deep digital flexor tendon lobes, at the level of the navicular bone and collateral sesamoidean ligaments, in proton density and T1-weighted pulse sequences. With increased angulation of the limb, t...
Effect of loading on the organization of the collagen fibril network in juvenile equine articular cartilage. We investigated the effects of exercise-induced loading on the collagen network of equine articular cartilage. Collagen fibril architecture at a site (1) subjected to intermittent high-intensity loading was compared with that of an adjacent site (2) sustaining continuous low-level load. From horses exposed to forced exercise (CONDEX group) or not (PASTEX group), the spatial parallelism of fibrils and the orientation angle between fibrils and the surface at depths 9 microm apart through cartilage from surface to tidemark were determined using polarized light microscopy, and expressed as paralle...
Effects of platelet-rich plasma on the repair of wounds on the distal aspect of the forelimb in horses. To evaluate the effect of platelet-rich plasma on wounds on the distal aspect of the forelimb in horses. Methods: 6 mixed-breed 10- to 15-year-old mares. Methods: 3 wounds were created on metacarpal regions in each of 6 horses (n = 36 wounds total). Eighteen wounds were treated with platelet-rich plasma and bandaged, whereas 18 control wounds were similarly bandaged with no prior topical treatment. Decrease in wound surface area and the required number of excisions of exuberant granulation tissue were recorded until complete healing. Tissue specimens were taken from wounds at 1 week for histol...
Use of a stand-alone pressure plate for the objective evaluation of forelimb symmetry in sound ponies at walk and trot. Subtle lameness in horses may be difficult to diagnose and methods to evaluate lameness objectively are useful when equine clinicians fail to reach a consensus. The aim of this study was to determine whether equine pressure plate measurements are repeatable when used to calculate forelimb loading (peak vertical pressure [PVP], peak vertical force [PVF], vertical impulse [VI]) and symmetry ratios, and to establish if these data are similar to the 'gold standard' force plate values. Since plate dimensions are relatively small, ponies were used to enable recordings to be taken from both forelimbs...
Implications of different degrees of arytenoid cartilage abduction on equine upper airway characteristics. The necessary degree of arytenoid cartilage abduction (ACA) to restore airway patency at maximal exercise has not been determined. Objective: Use computational fluid dynamics modelling to measure the effects of different degrees of ACA on upper airway characteristics of horses during exercise. Objective: Maximal ACA by laryngoplasty is necessary to restore normal peak airflow and pressure in Thoroughbred racehorses with laryngeal hemiplegia. Methods: The upper airway was modeled with the left arytenoid in 3 different positions: maximal abduction; 88% cross-sectional area of the rima glottis; a...
Accuracy of the TurfTrax Racing Data System for determination of equine speed and position. The speed and position data collected by TurfTrax Racing Data Limited during UK Thoroughbred racing have potential to benefit equine science and welfare. The size (the 2006 data set alone consists of 30,932 individual horse starts across 2667 races) and nature (speed and 2D position for each horse at 4 updates per second) of the data make it a unique resource for questions in equine safety, welfare, performance, and animal locomotion. Objective: To determine the accuracy of the TurfTrax tracking system in estimating the speed and position of horses during racing. Methods: Measurements from the...
Cartilage collagen matrix reorientation and displacement in response to surface loading. An investigation of collagen fiber reorientation, as well as fluid and matrix movement of equine articular cartilage and subchondral bone under compressive mechanical loads, was undertaken using small angle X-ray scattering measurements and optical microscopy. Small angle X-ray scattering measurements were made on healthy and diseased samples of equine articular cartilage and subchondral bone mounted in a mechanical testing apparatus on station ID18F of ESRF, Grenoble, together with fiber orientation analysis using polarized light and displacement measurements of the cartilage matrix and fluid...
Biomechanical comparison of six suture configurations using a large diameter polyester prosthesis in the muscular process of the equine arytenoid cartilage. To compare biomechanical properties of 6 suture configurations using a large diameter polyester prosthesis in the muscular process (MP) of the arytenoid cartilage and to determine failure mode. Methods: Experimental study. Methods: Cadaveric equine larynges (n=121). Methods: Suture configurations (4 single, 2 double) were inserted, and then constructs were tested in a single-cycle to failure at a 100 mm/min distraction. Load deformation curves were generated to assess the biomechanical properties of each construct. A 1-way ANOVA was used to compare the mean differences in construct failure for...
An equine joint friction test model using a cartilage-on-cartilage arrangement. This study describes an equine joint friction test using a cartilage-on-cartilage arrangement and investigates the influence of age and load on the frictional response. Osteochondral plugs were extracted from equine shoulder joints (2-5 years, n=12; 10-14 years, n=15), and mounted in a pin-on-disc tribometer. The frictional response was then measured under constant conditions (2N; 20 degrees C; 5 mm/s), and with increasing load (2N, 5N, 10N). In all experiments, the friction coefficient of young cartilage was significantly (P<0.001) smaller than obtained from old cartilage, while the applicati...
Design and validation of a dynamometric horseshoe for the measurement of three-dimensional ground reaction force on a moving horse. Properties of ground surfaces condition locomotion, and quality of track surfaces is believed to be involved in the pathogenesis of many musculoskeletal injuries in the horse. Measuring ground reaction forces (GRF) is an interesting approach to assess those interactions. Forceplates are the most commonly used but they are not well suited to compare different ground surfaces at fast gaits. Embarked equipment, fixed under the horse's hoof, would allow force measurement on any track. The objective of this work was (1) to design a device which enables the measurement of 3-D GRF on any ground, at a...
Measurement of the Curve of Spee in horses. The Curve of Spee is well known, yet hardly understood in the horse, as there is a striking lack of biometrically related data which could help to explain its biomechanical significance. Older horses display drastic alterations of the Curve of Spee in routine clinical examinations. Since the Curve of Spee is known to be biomechanically related to the masticatory forces in humans, the same may apply to the equine, and masticatory deficits can be expected in the geriatric horse. Quantitative data of the Curve of Spee cannot be obtained directly by means of measurements in the horse's long and na...
Effects of trunk deformation on trunk center of mass mechanical energy estimates in the moving horse, Equus caballus. The estimation of the position of the center of mass (CM) is essential in a wide range of biomechanical analyses. In horses, the majority of the body mass is contained in the trunk and in most studies, the trunk is assumed to be rigid. However, this rigidity assumption has not been tested. We quantified changes in the position of the trunk CM due to external shape changes by measuring the kinematics of a mesh encompassing the trunk. Using a frame of reference fixed to the horse's spine, we described the shape deformation of the trunk during walking. In addition, we tested for speed and individ...
Histological and biomechanical effects of palatal sclerotherapy in the horse using sodium tetradecyl sulfate. Palatal sclerotherapy using sodium tetradecyl sulfate has been suggested as a treatment for dorsal displacement of the soft palate in young Standardbred horses. The present study evaluated histological and biomechanical changes in the equine soft palate following trans-endoscopic treatment with a low dose of this compound. Two horses were euthanased and examined at 2 weeks and at 1, 2, 4 and 6 months post-sclerotherapy, while two further horses served as untreated controls. The technique was easily performed in all cases without major complications. On histological examination there was no evi...
2D versus 3D in the kinematic analysis of the horse at the trot. The handled trot of three Lusitano Purebred stallions was analyzed by using 2D and 3D kinematical analysis methods. Using the same capture and analysis system, 2D and 3D data of some linear (stride length, maximal height of the hoof trajectories) and angular (angular range of motion, inclination of bone segments) variables were obtained. A paired Student T-test was performed in order to detect statistically significant differences between data resulting from the two methodologies With respect to the angular variables, there were significant differences in scapula inclination, shoulder angle, c...
Is a magic angle effect observed in the collateral ligaments of the distal interphalangeal joint or the oblique sesamoidean ligaments during standing magnetic resonance imaging? Collagen fibers oriented at 55 degrees to the static magnetic field (B0) are characterized by an artifactual increase in signal intensity due to the magic angle effect. We hypothesized that there would be increased signal intensity in the collateral ligaments of the distal interphalangeal joint and oblique sesamoidean ligaments when these ligaments were at angles approaching 55 degrees to a horizontal B0 during standing magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. MR imaging was performed on four cadaver forelimbs in a 0.27 T standing system. Transverse and dorsal images were obtained using various sequen...
Biomechanical evaluation of the equine masticatory action: calculation of the masticatory forces occurring on the cheek tooth battery. The forces generated during equine mastication influence the teeth, as well as the periodontium, the jaw bones, the temporomandibular joints and materials used in dental therapy. Due to the limited accessibility of the cheek teeth located farther caudal in the equine oral cavity the measurement of the masticatory forces on these teeth is virtually impossible. The calculation of such forces is an appropriate, indirect alternative to direct measuring. Hence, a mathematical model, which respects several morphological features of the equine dentition, e.g. the Curve of Spee, is presented. The rele...
Limits to running speed in dogs, horses and humans. Are there absolute limits to the speed at which animals can run? If so, how close are present-day individuals to these limits? I approach these questions by using three statistical models and data from competitive races to estimate maximum running speeds for greyhounds, thoroughbred horses and elite human athletes. In each case, an absolute speed limit is definable, and the current record approaches that predicted maximum. While all such extrapolations must be used cautiously, these data suggest that there are limits to the ability of either natural or artificial selection to produce ever fast...
Stabilization and mobility of the head, neck and trunk in horses during overground locomotion: comparisons with humans and other primates. Segmental kinematics were investigated in horses during overground locomotion and compared with published reports on humans and other primates to determine the impact of a large neck on rotational mobility (> 20 deg.) and stability (< or = 20 deg.) of the head and trunk. Three adult horses (Equus caballus) performing walks, trots and canters were videotaped in lateral view. Data analysis included locomotor velocity, segmental positions, pitch and linear displacements and velocities, and head displacement frequencies. Equine, human and monkey skulls and cervical spines were measured to estimate...
MRI-based inverse finite element approach for the mechanical assessment of patellar articular cartilage from static compression test. The mechanical property of articular cartilage determines to a great extent the functionality of diarthrodial joints. Consequently, the early detection of mechanical and, thus, functional changes of cartilage is crucial for preventive measures to maintain the mobility and the quality of life of individuals. An alternative to conventional mechanical testing is the inverse finite element approach, enabling non-destructive testing of the tissue. We evaluated a method for the assessment of the equilibrium material properties of the patellar cartilage based on magnetic resonance imaging during pate...
Compliance calibration for fracture testing of anisotropic biological materials. The compliance technique has been used to monitor crack length during fracture and fatigue testing of materials. Difficulties arise when this technique is applied to anisotropic biological materials such as bone. In this tutorial, two different methods of analyzing compliance calibration data are described: the standard ASTM method and a new approach developed by the authors specifically for anisotropic materials. An example is given showing how data from equine cortical bone can be analyzed. In this example, calibration tests were conducted on thirty-six three point bend specimens machined fr...
Effect of track maintenance on mechanical properties of a dirt racetrack: a preliminary study. When Thoroughbred racehorses experience catastrophic injuries, the track surface is often discussed as a factor. The present study investigated the mechanical properties of the surface and found that significant changes in a track occur during routine maintenance. Questions regarding the relative importance of track variability and hardness require further investigation.
