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Topic:Cartilage
Cartilage in horses is a specialized connective tissue found in joints, providing a smooth, lubricated surface for articulation and facilitating the transmission of loads with low friction. It is composed of chondrocytes embedded within an extracellular matrix rich in collagen fibers, proteoglycans, and water. Cartilage does not contain blood vessels or nerves, relying on diffusion for nutrient delivery and waste removal. This avascularity contributes to its limited capacity for repair and regeneration. Research on equine cartilage focuses on understanding its structure, function, and the biological processes involved in cartilage development, maintenance, and degeneration. Studies also explore the impact of various conditions, such as osteoarthritis, on cartilage integrity and investigate potential therapeutic approaches for cartilage repair and preservation. This page gathers peer-reviewed research and scholarly articles that delve into the biology, pathology, and treatment of cartilage-related conditions in horses.
Near Infrared Spectroscopic Mapping of Functional Properties of Equine Articular Cartilage. Mechanical properties of articular cartilage are vital for normal joint function, which can be severely compromised by injuries. Quantitative characterization of cartilage injuries, and evaluation of cartilage stiffness and thickness by means of conventional arthroscopy is poorly reproducible or impossible. In this study, we demonstrate the potential of near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy for predicting and mapping the functional properties of equine articular cartilage at and around lesion sites. Lesion and non-lesion areas of interests (AI, N = 44) of equine joints (N = 5) were divided into...
Equine subchondral bone failure threshold under impact compression applied through articular cartilage. Subchondral bone microdamage due to high-impact loading is a key factor leading to post-traumatic knee osteoarthritis. A quantified assessment of the mechanical characteristics of subchondral bone at the tissue-level is essential to study the mechanism of impact-induced microdamage. We combined mechanical impact testing of equine cartilage-bone with µCT image-based finite element models (μFEM) of each specimen to determine subchondral bone (including calcified cartilage: CCSB) elastic tissue modulus and local stresses and strains associated with micro-fractures within the CCSB tissue. The ma...
Histological and lectin histochemical studies of the vomeronasal organ of horses. The morphological characteristics and glycoconjugate composition of the vomeronasal organ (VNO) of the horse was investigated using histological, immunohistochemical, and lectin histochemical methods. The VNO is bilaterally located at the base of the nasal septum, has a tubular structure surrounded by cartilage, and consists of sensory and non-sensory epithelia. Immunohistochemical examination showed that the vomeronasal sensory epithelium (VSE) consisted of receptor cells positive for both olfactory marker protein (OMP) and protein gene product 9.5 (PGP 9.5), supporting cells, and basal cells...
Optical coherence tomography enables accurate measurement of equine cartilage thickness for determination of speed of sound. Background and purpose - Arthroscopic estimation of articular cartilage thickness is important for scoring of lesion severity, and measurement of cartilage speed of sound (SOS)-a sensitive index of changes in cartilage composition. We investigated the accuracy of optical coherence tomography (OCT) in measurements of cartilage thickness and determined SOS by combining OCT thickness and ultrasound (US) time-of-flight (TOF) measurements. Material and methods - Cartilage thickness measurements from OCT and microscopy images of 94 equine osteochondral samples were compared. Then, SOS in cartilage w...
Early cathepsin K degradation of type II collagen in vitro and in vivo in articular cartilage. To characterize the initial events in the cleavage of type II collagen mediated by cathepsin K and demonstrate the presence of the resulting products in human and equine articular osteoarthritic cartilage. Equine type II collagen was digested with cathepsin K and the cleavage products characterized by mass spectrometry. Anti-neoepitope antibodies were raised against the most N-terminal cleavage products and used to investigate the progress of collagen cleavage, in vitro, and the presence of cathepsin K-derived products in equine and human osteoarthritic cartilage. Six cathepsin K cleavage sit...
Effects of Dexamethasone Concentration and Timing of Exposure on Chondrogenesis of Equine Bone Marrow-Derived Mesenchymal Stem Cells. Dexamethasone is known to support mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) chondrogenesis, although the effects of dose and timing of exposure are not well understood. The objective of this study was to investigate these variables using a laboratory model of MSC chondrogenesis. Methods: Equine MSCs were encapsulated in agarose and cultured in chondrogenic medium with 1 or 100 nM dexamethasone, or without dexamethasone, for 15 days. Samples were analyzed for extracellular matrix (ECM) accumulation, prostaglandin E2 and alkaline phosphatase secretion, and gene expression of selected collagens and catabolic e...
Evaluation of a Permanent Synthetic Osteochondral Implant in the Equine Medial Femoral Condyle. To evaluate bone ingrowth, integration, and tolerance of a synthetic osteochondral implant in the medial femoral condyle (MFC) of normal horses. Methods: Experimental study. Methods: Adult horses (n = 6). Methods: Horses were anesthetized and bilateral femorotibial arthrotomies were performed for placement of 1 implant consisting of polycarbonate urethane with a titanium base in 1 MFC. The contralateral MFC served as a sham-operated control without reaming of cartilage or subchondral bone. Lameness evaluations and radiographs were performed pre-operatively with subsequent monthly lameness exam...
Cartilage defect repair in horses: Current strategies and recent developments in regenerative medicine of the equine joint with emphasis on the surgical approach. Chondral and osteochondral lesions due to injury or other pathology are highly prevalent conditions in horses (and humans) and commonly result in the development of osteoarthritis and progression of joint deterioration. Regenerative medicine of articular cartilage is an emerging clinical treatment option for patients with articular cartilage injury or disease. Functional articular cartilage restoration, however, remains a major challenge, but the field is progressing rapidly and there is an increasing body of supportive clinical and scientific evidence. This review gives an overview of the est...
Femoral epiphyseal cartilage matrix changes at predilection sites of equine osteochondrosis: Quantitative MRI, second-harmonic microscopy, and histological findings. Osteochondrosis is an ischemic chondronecrosis of epiphyseal growth cartilage that results in focal failure of endochondral ossification and osteochondritis dissecans at specific sites in the epiphyses of humans and animals, including horses. The upstream events leading to the focal ischemia remain unknown. The epiphyseal growth cartilage matrix is composed of proteoglycan and collagen macromolecules and encases its vascular tree in canals. The matrix undergoes major dynamic changes in early life that could weaken it biomechanically and predispose it to focal trauma and vascular failure. Subre...
Equine-Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Retain Lineage Commitment Toward Myogenic and Chondrogenic Fates. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) hold great potential not only for human but also for veterinary purposes. The equine industry must often deal with health issues concerning muscle and cartilage, where comprehensive regenerative strategies are still missing. In this regard, a still open question is whether equine iPSCs differentiate toward muscle and cartilage, and whether donor cell type influences their differentiation potential. We addressed these questions through an isogenic system of equine iPSCs obtained from myogenic mesoangioblasts (MAB-iPSCs) and chondrogenic mesenchymal stem ce...
Addition of Mesenchymal Stem Cells to Autologous Platelet-Enhanced Fibrin Scaffolds in Chondral Defects: Does It Enhance Repair? The chondrogenic potential of culture-expanded bone-marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMDMSCs) is well described. Numerous studies have also shown enhanced repair when BMDMSCs, scaffolds, and growth factors are placed into chondral defects. Platelets provide a rich milieu of growth factors and, along with fibrin, are readily available for clinical use. The objective of this study was to determine if the addition of BMDMSCs to an autologous platelet-enriched fibrin (APEF) scaffold enhances chondral repair compared with APEF alone. Methods: A 15-mm-diameter full-thickness chondral defect wa...
The benefits and limitations of animal models for translational research in cartilage repair. Much research is currently ongoing into new therapies for cartilage defect repair with new biomaterials frequently appearing which purport to have significant regenerative capacity. These biomaterials may be classified as medical devices, and as such must undergo rigorous testing before they are implanted in humans. A large part of this testing involves in vitro trials and biomechanical testing. However, in order to bridge the gap between the lab and the clinic, in vivo preclinical trials are required, and usually demanded by regulatory approval bodies. This review examines the in vivo models ...
Production of serum amyloid A in equine articular chondrocytes and fibroblast-like synoviocytes treated with proinflammatory cytokines and its effects on the two cell types in culture. To investigate the role of the major equine acute phase protein serum amyloid A (SAA) in inflammation of equine intraarticular tissues. Methods: Articular chondrocytes and fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs) from 8 horses (4 horses/cell type). Methods: Chondrocytes and FLSs were stimulated in vitro for various periods up to 48 hours with cytokines (recombinant interleukin [IL]-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor-α, or a combination of all 3 [IIT]) or with recombinant SAA. Gene expression of SAA, IL-6, matrix metalloproteinases (MMP)-1 and -3, and cartilage-derived retinoic acid-sensitive protein...
Effect of Fibroblast Growth Factor 2 on Equine Synovial Fluid Chondroprogenitor Expansion and Chondrogenesis. Mesenchymal stem cells have been identified in the synovial fluid of several species. This study was conducted to characterize chondroprogenitor (CP) cells in equine synovial fluid (SF) and to determine the effect of fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF-2) on SF-CP monolayer proliferation and subsequent chondrogenesis. We hypothesized that FGF-2 would stimulate SF-CP proliferation and postexpansion chondrogenesis. SF aspirates were collected from adult equine joints. Colony-forming unit (CFU) assays were performed during primary cultures. At first passage, SF-cells were seeded at low density, with ...
Osteoclasts are recruited to the subchondral bone in naturally occurring post-traumatic equine carpal osteoarthritis and may contribute to cartilage degradation. The role of osteoclasts in osteochondral degeneration in osteoarthritis (OA) has rarely been investigated in spontaneous disease or animal models of OA. Objective: The objectives of the current study were to investigate osteoclast density and location in post-traumatic OA (PTOA) and control specimens from racehorses. Methods: Cores were harvested from a site in the equine third carpal bone, that undergoes repetitive, high intensity loading. Histological and immunohistochemical (Cathepsin K and Receptor-activator of Nuclear Factor kappa-β ligand (RANKL)) stained sections were scored (global an...
Cell-based cartilage repair strategies in the horse. Damage to the articular cartilage surface is common in the equine athlete and, due to the poor intrinsic healing capabilities of cartilage, can lead to osteoarthritis (OA). Joint disease and OA are the leading cause of retirement in equine athletes and currently there are no effective treatments to stop the progression of OA. Several different cell-based strategies have been investigated to bolster the weak regenerative response of chondrocytes. Such techniques aim to restore the articular surface and prevent further joint degradation. Cell-based cartilage repair strategies include enhancement...
Discontinuities in the endothelium of epiphyseal cartilage canals and relevance to joint disease in foals. Cartilage canals have been shown to contain discontinuous blood vessels that enable circulating bacteria to bind to cartilage matrix, leading to vascular occlusion and associated pathological changes in pigs and chickens. It is also inconsistently reported that cartilage canals are surrounded by a cellular or acellular wall that may influence whether bacterial binding can occur. It is not known whether equine cartilage canals contain discontinuous endothelium or are surrounded by a wall. This study aimed to examine whether there were discontinuities in the endothelium of cartilage canal vessel...
Chondrogenic Priming at Reduced Cell Density Enhances Cartilage Adhesion of Equine Allogeneic MSCs – a Loading Sensitive Phenomenon in an Organ Culture Study with 180 Explants. Clinical results of regenerative treatments for osteoarthritis are becoming increasingly significant. However, several questions remain UNANSWERED concerning mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) adhesion and incorporation into cartilage. Methods: To this end, peripheral blood (PB) MSCs were chondrogenically induced and/or stimulated with pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEMFs) for a brief period of time just sufficient to prime differentiation. In an organ culture study, PKH26 labelled MSCs were added at two different cell densities (0.5 x106 vs 1.0 x106). In total, 180 explants of six horses (30 per hor...
Identification of novel osteochondrosis–Associated genes. During the early stages of articular osteochondrosis, cartilage is retained in subchondral bone, but the pathophysiology of this condition of growing humans and domestic animals is poorly understood. A subtractive hybridization study was undertaken to compare gene expression between the cartilage of early experimentally induced equine osteochondrosis lesions and control cartilage. Of the many putative differentially expressed genes identified, eight were confirmed by quantitative PCR analysis as differentially expressed, in addition to those already known to be associated with early lesions. G...
Mechanical properties and structure-function relationships in articular cartilage repaired using IGF-I gene-enhanced chondrocytes. Several studies have demonstrated the benefits of IGF-I gene therapy in enhancing the histologic and biochemical content of cartilage repaired by chondrocyte transplantation. However, there is little to no data on the mechanical performance of IGF-I augmented cartilage grafts. This study evaluated the compressive properties of full-thickness chondral defects in the equine femur repaired with and without IGF-I gene therapy. Animals were randomly assigned to one of three study cohorts based on chondrocyte treatment provided in each defect: (i) IGF-I gene delivered by recombinant adeno-associated...
Relationship between serum biomarkers of cartilage and bone metabolism and joint injury in young Thoroughbred racehorses in training. To compare serum concentrations of biomarkers of cartilage and bone metabolism between racehorses with a carpal or metacarpophalangeal or metatarsophalangeal (ie, fetlock) joint injury and matched uninjured control horses, determine changes in biomarker concentrations following joint injury, and establish the biomarkers' diagnostic test performance. Methods: 50 Thoroughbred racehorses with a carpal or fetlock joint injury and 50 matched uninjured horses (control horses). Methods: Serum concentrations of 2 cartilage synthesis biomarkers (carboxy-terminal propeptide of type II collagen [CPII] an...
Wnt/β-catenin signaling of cartilage canal and osteochondral junction chondrocytes and full thickness cartilage in early equine osteochondrosis. The objective of this study was to elucidate gene and protein expression of Wnt signaling molecules in chondrocytes of foals having early osteochondrosis (OC) versus normal controls. The hypothesis was that increased expression of components of Wnt signaling pathway in osteochondral junction (OCJ) and cartilage canal (CC) chondrocytes would be found in early OC when compared to controls. Paraffin-embedded osteochondral samples (7 OC, 8 normal) and cDNA from whole cartilage (7 OC, 10 normal) and chondrocytes surrounding cartilage canals and osteochondral junctions captured with laser capture mi...
Influence of Exercise and Intra-articular Site on Canals in Articular Calcified Cartilage of Equine Third Carpal Bones. The third carpal bone (C3) responds to exercise by adaptive modeling of bone and articular calcified cartilage along the dorsal load path. Canals penetrating articular calcified cartilage, thought to contain vascular tissue, are reported in numerous species. Their significance remains unclear. Our objective was to determine if the number of canals was significantly different in strenuously exercised and control young horses and in a site of intermittent high loading compared to sites sustaining lower habitual loads. Volumetric bone mineral density in the radial facet of C3 of strenuously exerc...
Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory effects of two platelet-rich gel supernatants in an in vitro system of cartilage inflammation. To study, in normal cartilage explants (CEs) challenged with lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the temporal effects (at 48 and 96h) of leukocyte- and platelet-rich gel (L-PRG) and pure platelet-rich gel (P-PRG) supernatants on the production and degradation of platelet-associated growth factors (GFs) (platelet-derived GF isoform BB [PDGF-BB] and transforming growth factor beta-1 [TGF-β1]), pro-inflammatory (tumour necrosis factor alpha [TNF-α]) and anti-inflammatory cytokines (interleukin 4 [IL-4] and IL-1 receptor antagonist [IL-1ra]). Methods: CEs from six horses were challenged with LPS and cultu...
Effects of a synovial flap and gelatin/β-tricalcium phosphate sponges loaded with mesenchymal stem cells, bone morphogenetic protein-2, and platelet rich plasma on equine osteochondral defects. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of a synovial flap and gelatin/β-tricalcium phosphate (GT) sponge loaded with mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2), and platelet rich plasma (PRP) for repairing of osteochondral defects in horses. Osteochondral defects were created on the medial condyle of both femurs (n=5). In the test group, a GT sponge loaded with MSCs, BMP-2, and PRP (GT/MSCs/BMP-2/PRP) was inserted into the defect and then covered with a synovial flap. In the control group, the defect was treated only with the GT/MSCs/BMP-2/PRP. The test group showe...
Changes in synovial fluid biomarker concentrations following arthroscopic surgery in horses with osteochondritis dissecans of the distal intermediate ridge of the tibia. To quantify concentrations of cartilage oligomeric matrix protein (COMP) and fibromodulin in synovial fluid from the tarsocrural joints (TCJs) of horses with osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) of the distal intermediate ridge of the tibia and determine whether concentrations would change following arthroscopic removal of osteochondral fragments. Methods: 115 client-owned horses with OCD of the TCJ and 29 control horses euthanized for unrelated reasons. Methods: COMP and fibromodulin concentrations were measured in synovial fluid from the TCJs of the affected horses before and after osteochondral ...
What quantitative mechanical loading stimulates in vitro cultivation best? Articular cartilage has limited regeneration capacities. One of the factors that appear to affect the in vitro cultivation of articular cartilage is mechanical stimulation. So far, no combination of parameters has been identified that offers the best results. The goal is to review the literature in search of the best available set of quantitative mechanical stimuli that lead to optimal in vitro cultivation.The databases Scopus and PubMed were used to survey the literature, and strict in- and exclusion criteria were applied regarding the presence of quantitative data. The review was performed b...
Telomerase Activity in Articular Chondrocytes Is Lost after Puberty. Telomere length and telomerase activity are important indicators of cellular senescence and replicative ability. Loss of telomerase is associated with ageing and the development of osteoarthritis. Implantation of telomerase-positive cells, chondrocytes, or stem cells expressing a normal chondrocyte phenotype is desired for cartilage repair procedures. The objective of this study was to identify at what age chondrocytes and at what passage bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) become senescent based on telomerase activity. The effect of osteogenic protein-1 (OP-1) or interleukin-1α...
Animal Models of Osteoarthritis: Comparisons and Key Considerations. Osteoarthritis (OA) is unquestionably one of the most important chronic health issues in humans, affecting millions of individuals and costing billions of dollars annually. Despite widespread awareness of this disease and its devastating impact, the pathogenesis of early OA is not completely understood, hampering the development of effective tools for early diagnosis and disease-modifying therapeutics. Most human tissue available for study is obtained at the time of joint replacement, when OA lesions are end stage and little can be concluded about the factors that played a role in disease deve...
Determining collagen distribution in articular cartilage using contrast-enhanced micro-computed tomography. Collagen distribution within articular cartilage (AC) is typically evaluated from histological sections, e.g., using collagen staining and light microscopy (LM). Unfortunately, all techniques based on histological sections are time-consuming, destructive, and without extraordinary effort, limited to two dimensions. This study investigates whether phosphotungstic acid (PTA) and phosphomolybdic acid (PMA), two collagen-specific markers and X-ray absorbers, could (1) produce contrast for AC X-ray imaging or (2) be used to detect collagen distribution within AC. Methods: We labeled equine AC sampl...
