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Topic:Diagnostic Technique
Diagnostic techniques in equine medicine encompass a range of procedures and tools used to identify diseases, injuries, or other health conditions in horses. These techniques include imaging methods such as radiography, ultrasonography, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), as well as laboratory tests like blood work and tissue biopsies. Each diagnostic method provides specific information that can aid in the assessment and management of equine health issues. Radiography is commonly used for evaluating bone structures, while ultrasonography is useful for soft tissue examination. MRI offers detailed images of both soft and hard tissues, though its use is limited by cost and availability. Laboratory tests can detect biochemical and hematological changes indicative of disease. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the development, application, and efficacy of various diagnostic techniques in equine veterinary practice.
Isolation and genetic analysis of Japanese encephalitis virus from a diseased horse in Japan. Japanese encephalitis (JE) developed in an unvaccinated half-bred horse kept in Tottori Prefecture, Japan. The animal showed ataxia with pyrexia and low appetite, and ultimately died. A viral strain was isolated from the cerebrum of the horse and was identified as JE virus (JEV) by RT-PCR using JEV specific primers. The isolated JEV was classified into genotype I by nucleotide sequence analysis of the viral envelope gene. We believe that this is the first report of the genotype I strain being isolated from a horse.
Molecular typing of VapA-positive Rhodococcus equi isolates from Jeju native horses, Korea. We recently demonstrated the presence of virulence-associated protein antigen (VapA)-positive Rhodococcus equi in Jeju Island, Korea. These bacteria contained one of two distinct plasmid types, a 90-kb type II plasmid, which has been found in isolates from the native Kiso horses of Japan, and a new variant, a 90-kb type V plasmid. However, the genotypic characters of the VapA-positive R. equi from Jeju native horses and their environments are poorly understood. Ninety-eight isolates from soil samples and 89 isolates from fecal samples were collected from five farms that breed or have bred Jeju...
Comparison of four staining methods for detection of mast cells in equine bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. Mast cells normally are present in equine bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF), but usually represent <2% of all cells in healthy horses. An increased percentage of mast cells has been associated with airway hyperactivity and inflammatory airway diseases, but marked differences are reported between studies in normal and diseased horses. Because an abnormal mast cell count may be of clinical relevance, we compared the ability of a fast Romanowsky method to stain mast cell granules with that of 3 metachromatic stains: automated Romanowsky, May-Grünwald Giemsa, and toluidine blue stains. The B...
Relationships of changes in B-mode echotexture and colour-Doppler signals in the wall of the preovulatory follicle to changes in systemic oestradiol concentrations and the effects of human chorionic gonadotrophin in mares. A duplex grey-scale and colour-Doppler ultrasound instrument was used to study the changes in the wall of the preovulatory follicle in mares. When the follicle reached > or =35 mm (hour 0), mares were randomized into control (n = 16) and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)-treated (n = 16) groups. The hCG treatment was given at hour 0. Scanning was done every 12 h until hour 36, every hour between hours 36 and 48, and every 12 h thereafter until ovulation. Blood was sampled every 12 h for oestradiol assay. During the period 0-24 h post-treatment, oestradiol concentrations decreased in the hC...
Development and evaluation of a Sarcocystis neurona-specific IgM capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM) is a serious neurologic disease of horses caused primarily by the protozoal parasite Sarcocystis neurona. Currently available antemortem diagnostic testing has low specificity. The hypothesis of this study was that serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of horses experimentally challenged with S neurona would have an increased S neurona-specific IgM (Sn-IgM) concentration after infection, as determined by an IgM capture enzyme linked immunoassay (ELISA). The ELISA was based on the S neurona low molecular weight protein SNUCD-1 antigen and the monoclonal an...
Malassezia species isolated from the intermammary and preputial fossa areas of horses. Malassezia-type yeasts previously have been observed on cytologic examination of the intermammary region of mares that presented with tail-head pruritus; topical antiyeast treatment resolved the pruritus. Further, Malassezia dermatitis has been observed in horses in intertriginous areas such as the udder and prepuce; the species of yeast was not confirmed. It is not known whether healthy mares or male horses can be carriers of this yeast in these body areas. Objective: Malassezia spp. are present in the intermammary region in healthy mares and the preputial fossa in healthy geldings. Methods: ...
Comparison of tenoscopic and ultrasonographic methods of examination of the digital flexor tendon sheath in horses. The purpose of this study was to compare sonographic and tenoscopic findings with the purpose of establishing the accuracy and limitations of ultrasonograophy as a non-invasive diagnostic modality in evaluating the DFTS and its enclosed tendons. The medical records from 22 horses which underwent tenoscopic desmotomy of the palmar/plantar annular ligament were evaluated in a retrospective study. The qualitative assessment of sonogrophic and tenoscopic findings were documented for the digital flexor tendon sheath (DFTS), the palmar/plantar annular ligament (PAL), the superficial digital flexor t...
Third metacarpal bone mineral density assessment in the standing horse by dual X-ray absorptiometry: suitability, precision and accuracy. Bone mineral density (BMD) is correlated to mechanical properties of bone. In the horse, dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) has yet only been performed ex-vivo, but a new portable DXA device would be ideal for in-vivo BMD measurement. We explored field suitability, precision and accuracy of this device for in-vivo third metacarpal density assessment. Precision was analysed by calculating measurement variation under repeated measurement tests with (reproducibility) and without (repeatability) limb repositioning. Repeatability and reproducibility were tested ex-vivo, at the same time that in...
Sucrose concentration in blood: a new method for assessment of gastric permeability in horses with gastric ulceration. A urine sucrose test has recently been reported to be a reliable method of detecting gastric ulcers in horses; however, technical difficulties associated with urine collection have limited the practical value of the test. The objective of this pilot study was to determine whether gastric sucrose permeability, as evaluated by serum sucrose concentration, could be used to detect gastric mucosal injury in horses. Twelve adult horses with naturally acquired gastric ulceration were studied. After a 20-hour nonfeeding period, each horse was dosed with 250 g of sucrose via nasogastric intubation. Blo...
Measurement of free thyroxine concentration in horses by equilibrium dialysis. The purpose of the study reported here was to validate measurement of free thyroxine (fT4) concentration in equine serum by equilibrium dialysis (fT4D), and to compare values with fT4 concentration measured directly and with total T4 (TT4) concentration. The fT4D, fT4, and TT4 concentrations were measured over a range of values in euthyroid horses and horses made hypothyroid by administration of propylthiouracil (PTU). Concentrations of fT4D (<1.8-83 pmol/L) were consistently higher than those of fT4 (<1-40 pmol/L). There was a significant (P < .001) regression of fT4D on fT4 in 503 s...
Usefulness of a commercial equine IgG test and serum protein concentration as indicators of failure of transfer of passive immunity in hospitalized foals. Detection of failure of transfer of passive immunity (FTPI) is important in reducing morbidity and mortality in neonatal foals. We investigated the performance of a commercial equine IgG test (SNAP Foal IgG Test Kit) to diagnose FTPI in hospitalized foals. Furthermore, we evaluated the usefulness of serum total protein (STP) and serum globulin (SG) concentrations as indicators of FTPI. Serum IgG concentration was measured by means of the SNAP test and single radial immunodiffusion, and SG and STP concentrations were determined by means of a clinical chemistry analyzer. Subjects were 67 hospita...
Sequence analysis of a 212 kb defensin gene cluster on ECA 27q17. Defensins are a family of evolutionary ancient antimicrobial peptides consisting of three sub-families: alpha-, beta- and theta-defensins. This investigation was focused on the genomic characterization of equine beta-defensins and the investigation of the potential clustering of beta-defensin genes in the equine genome. Six genomic BAC clones were isolated from the CHORI-241 library and one of these was mapped by FISH to ECA 27q17. This location was confirmed by RH-mapping. The contiguous 212 kb sequence of this clone was determined. Sequence analysis revealed the identification of ten pseudog...
Histomorphologic evaluation of extracorporeal shock wave therapy of the fourth metatarsal bone and the origin of the suspensory ligament in horses without lameness. To determine via histologic examination and scintigraphy the effect of focused extracorporeal shock wave therapy (ESWT) on normal bone and the bone-ligament interface in horses. Methods: 6 horses without lameness. Methods: Origins of the suspensory ligament at the metacarpus (35-mm probe depth) and fourth metatarsal bone (5-mm probe depth) were treated twice (days 0 and 16) with 2,000 shocks (energy flux density, 0.15 mJ/mm2). One forelimb and 1 hind limb were randomly treated, and the contralateral limbs served as nontreated controls. Bone scans were performed on days -1 (before ESWT), 3, 16,...
Detection of superoxide anion generation by equine spermatozoa. To identify the generation of the superoxide anion by equine spermatozoa. Methods: Multiple ejaculates collected from 3 Thoroughbred stallions. Methods: Induced superoxide production by reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotides (NAD[P]H; ie, reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide [NADH] and reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate [NADPH]) was measured by use of a nitroblue tetrazolium (NBT) reduction assay on whole spermatozoa and a cytochrome c reduction assay on isolated membrane fractions of spermatozoa. Localization of superoxide generation was determined by use of NBT cyto...
Doppler sonographic evaluation of the digital blood flow in horses with laminitis or septic pododermatitis. The aim of this study was to evaluate the use of Doppler ultrasonography to monitor vascular blood flow dynamics in defined diseases of the equine digit in a noninvasive way. Doppler sonography was used to evaluate medial digital artery blood flow in eight horses with septic pododermatitis and four horses with laminitis in comparison with 10 horses of a control group. Doppler sonographic measurement and lameness examinations were performed in lame horses before treatment (day 0) and at 3, 6, and 9 days following treatment. Before treatment, blood flow velocities, arterial diameter, and flow vo...
Anisotropic Poisson’s ratio and compression modulus of cortical bone determined by speckle interferometry. Young's modulus and Poisson's ratios of 6mm-sized cubes of equine cortical bone were measured in compression using a micro-mechanical loading device. Surface displacements were determined by electronic speckle pattern-correlation interferometry. This method allows for non-destructive testing of very small samples in water. Analyses of standard materials showed that the method is accurate and precise for determining both Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio. Material properties were determined concurrently in three orthogonal anatomic directions (axial, radial and transverse). Young's modulus va...
Potential role of multiple rectal biopsies in the diagnosis of equine grass sickness. Two samples were taken postmortem from the rectum of each of 14 horses with grass sickness and 10 control horses, and four sections stained with haematoxylin and eosin were examined. By using as a criterion of grass sickness the presence of three chromatolytic neurons, 10 of the 14 cases were positive and none of the control horses was positive, giving a sensitivity of 71 per cent and a specificity of 100 per cent. No other histological features appeared to be of diagnostic value, and staining for Nissl substance in neurons with cresyl fast violet and methyl green-pyronin did not improve the s...
Noninfected tenosynovitis of the digital flexor tendon sheath: a retrospective analysis of 76 cases. Until recently, the pathogenesis of noninfected tenosynovitis of the digital flexor tendon sheath (DFTS) has been considered obscure. With the advent of tenoscopy some inciting causes have been described, but to date few cases with a precise diagnosis have been reported. Objective: Tenoscopic surgery enables accurate diagnosis and facilitates treatment of noninfected tenosynovitis of the DFTS. Methods: The case records of all horses with noninfected tenosynovitis of the DFTS admitted to a referral clinic over a 7-year period were evaluated retrospectively. Follow-up information was obtained by...
Detection of altrenogest and its metabolites in post administration horse urine using liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry–increased sensitivity by chemical derivatisation of the glucuronic acid conjugate. Altrenogest (17alpha-allyl-17beta-hydroxyestra-4,9,11-trien-3-one) is a steroid used for the control of estrus in horses. This drug can potentially be abused in racehorses as the occurrence of estrus can alter their performance. This work describes an analytical method based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the detection of altrenogest in horse urine down to a concentration of 13 pg/mL (0.042 nM). Furthermore, the qualitative aspect of metabolism of altrenogest in the horse has been studied. The main transformations that were found for this species were conjugation with gl...
[Disorders of the origin of the suspensory ligament in the horse: a diagnostic challenge]. Lameness in horses due to pain originating from the proximal metacarpal/metatarsal region remains a diagnostic challenge. In cases of obvious lameness the pain can be localised to this region by diagnostic anaesthesia. Because a variety of disorders can cause lameness in this region different imaging modalities including radiography, ultrasonography and scintigraphy should be used to arrive at an accurate diagnosis. Even though a precise anatomic-pathologic diagnosis can still be an enigma, because not only bone and joints, but also soft tissue structures including the proximal suspensory liga...
Seroprevalences of Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora sp. infections in Swedish horses. Sera from 414 Swedish horses were investigated for the presence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora sp. by the T. gondii direct agglutination test (DAT), and an Neospora caninum iscom-ELISA. Five sera (1%) had a titre >1:40 in DAT, but when analysed by immunoblotting against T. gondii antigens only two of them were positive, giving a seroprevalence of 0.5%. Since the Neospora iscom ELISA had not been validated for equine sera it was used for an initial screening, and all sera with an optical density exceeding 0.200 absorbance units were selected for further investigation by immu...
Kinematics of the equine temporomandibular joint. To develop a method of measuring 3-dimensional kinematics of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) in horses chewing sweet feed. Methods: 4 mature horses that had good dental health. Methods: Markers attached to the skin over the skull and mandible were tracked by an optical tracking system. Movements of the mandible relative to the skull were described in terms of 3 rotations and 3 translations. A virtual marker was created on the midline between the rami of the mandibles at the level of the rostral end of the facial crest to facilitate observation of mandibular movements. Results: During the ope...
Fractionation of calcium and magnesium in equine serum. To establish reference values for protein-bound, ionized, and weak-acid complexed fractions of calcium and magnesium in equine serum and determine stability of ionized calcium (iCa) and ionized magnesium (iMg) in serum samples kept under various storage conditions. Methods: 28 clinically normal horses. Methods: Total calcium (tCa) and magnesium (tMg) in equine serum were fractionated by use of a micropartition system that allows separation of protein-bound calcium (pCa) and magnesium (pMg) and ultrafiltrable calcium (microCa) and magnesium (microMg) fractions. Serum concentrations of iCa and i...
EHV-1 and EHV-4 infection in vaccinated mares and their foals. A silent cycle of equine herpesvirus 1 infection was described following epidemiological studies of unvaccinated mares and foals on a Hunter Valley stud farm. Following the introduction of routine vaccination with an inactivated whole virus equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) and equine herpesvirus 4 (EHV-4) vaccine in 1997, a subsequent study identified excretion of EHV-1 and EHV-4 in nasal swab samples tested by PCR from vaccinated mares and their unweaned, unvaccinated foals. The current sero-epidemiological investigation of vaccinated mares and their young foals found serological evidence of EHV-...
Ophthalmic examination findings of Thoroughbred racehorses in Australia. To record the prevalence and document the types of eye disease in population of Thoroughbred racehorses in Victoria, Australia. Methods: Prospective study. Methods: Two hundred four Thoroughbred racehorses. Methods: All horses and both eyes were examined at four metropolitan and two country racing stable complexes. Ophthalmic exam was performed following dark adaptation with a transilluminator, biomicroscope, and direct ophthalmoscope. Intraocular pressures were measured when indicated. Both pupils were dilated with tropicamide when indicated. Results: One hundred eighty-two (89.2%) flat-racin...
Real-time polymerase chain reaction: a novel molecular diagnostic tool for equine infectious diseases. The focus of rapid diagnosis of infectious disease of horses in the last decade has shifted from the conventional laboratory techniques of antigen detection, microscopy, and culture to molecular diagnosis of infectious agents. Equine practitioners must be able to interpret the use, limitations, and results of molecular diagnostic techniques, as they are increasingly integrated into routine microbiology laboratory protocols. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is the best-known and most successfully implemented diagnostic molecular technology to date. It can detect slow-growing, difficult-to-cultiv...
Immunohistochemical identification of lymphatic vessels in the periodontium of equine cheek teeth. Immunohistochemical detection of lymphatic capillaries was performed in the periodontium of maxillary and mandibular cheek teeth from 6 horses (aged 3-23 years). Tissue sections of the periodontium were taken at 4 different horizontal levels along the long axis of the tooth. The specimens were processed for immunoreaction with anti-Prox1, in order to distinguish lymphatic endothelium from blood vascular endothelium. Lymphatic vessels were detected in all periodontal tissues except for the dental cementum. Lymphatic capillaries were most densely distributed in the gingiva compared to other tiss...
