Disease control in horses encompasses the strategies and measures implemented to prevent, manage, and eradicate infectious and non-infectious diseases within equine populations. This field involves the study of pathogen transmission, host-pathogen interactions, and the development of effective vaccination and biosecurity protocols. Disease control also includes monitoring and surveillance of equine health to identify outbreaks and implement timely interventions. Key aspects of disease control in horses involve understanding the epidemiology of equine diseases, improving diagnostic techniques, and enhancing treatment options. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore various methodologies, technologies, and practices aimed at controlling diseases in horses, with a focus on improving overall equine health and welfare.
Muellner P, Muellner U, Gates MC, Pearce T, Ahlstrom C, O'Neill D, Brodbelt D, Cave NJ.Veterinary practitioners have extensive knowledge of animal health from their day-to-day observations of clinical patients. There have been several recent initiatives to capture these data from electronic medical records for use in national surveillance systems and clinical research. In response, an approach to surveillance has been evolving that leverages existing computerized veterinary practice management systems to capture animal health data recorded by veterinarians. Work in the United Kingdom within the VetCompass program utilizes routinely recorded clinical data with the addition of fur...
Scott SD, Kinsley R, Temperton N, Daly JM.Pseudotyped viruses (PVs) produced by co-transfecting cells with plasmids expressing lentiviral core proteins and viral envelope proteins are potentially powerful tools for studying various aspects of equine influenza virus (EIV) biology. The aim of this study was to optimise production of equine influenza PVs. Co-transfection of the HAT protease to activate the haemagglutinin (HA) yielded a higher titre PV than TMPRSS2 with the HA from A/equine/Richmond/1/2007 (H3N8), whereas for A/equine/Newmarket/79 (H3N8), both proteases resulted in equivalent titres. TMPRSS4 was ineffective with the HA of...
Faverjon C, Vial F, Andersson MG, Lecollinet S, Leblond A.West Nile virus (WNV) is a growing public health concern in Europe and there is a need to develop more efficient early detection systems. Nervous signs in horses are considered to be an early indicator of WNV and, using them in a syndromic surveillance system, might be relevant. In our study, we assessed whether or not data collected by the passive French surveillance system for the surveillance of equine diseases can be used routinely for the detection of WNV. We tested several pre-processing methods and detection algorithms based on regression. We evaluated system performances using simulate...
Liu SA, Haque M, Stanfield B, Andrews FM, Roy AA, Kousoulas KG.West Nile Virus (WNV) is endemic in the US and causes severe neurologic disease in horses since its introduction in 1999. There is no effective pharmaceutical treatment for WNV infection rendering vaccination as the only approach to prevention and control of disease. The purpose of this study was to evaluate a recombinant vaccine containing domain III (DIII) of the WNV envelope glycoprotein with and without a natural adjuvant equine (CD40L) in producing virus neutralizing antibodies in horses. Serum IgG1 concentration in the groups of horses vaccinated with the DIII-CD40L+TiterMax and DIII-CD4...
Avcıoğlu H, Güven E, Balkaya İ, Yavuz Ş, Abay U, Akyüz M, Eltas Ö.This study aimed to determine the parasites present in horses belonging to the Erzurum Province. Methods: Fecal samples were collected from 76 horses of different ages, genders and breeds in Erzurum. Individual fecal samples were collected and examined by flotation and sedimentation methods. Results: The following species were detected: strongylid egg (57.89%), Parascaris equorum (10.52%), Dicrocoelium dendriticum (2.63%), Fasciola spp. (2.63%) eggs, and Eimeria spp. oocysts (5.26%). Conclusions: Equine animals are significantly infected with Strongylosis in the Erzurum Province, and effective...
Pinto PS, Libonati H, Lilenbaum W.Leptospirosis is a worldwide zoonosis which can affect many species. Control programs need accurate diagnosis to be successful, and currently, diagnosis relies on serology. It presents three main issues: the sampling, the antigen panel, and the cutoff point. Herein, we propose a systematic review on leptospirosis among dogs, pigs, and horses in Latin America in order to improve the understanding of the seroepidemiology of leptospirosis in these species in the region as well as the temporal development of the research on this topic and, consequently, improve the chances of success on control pr...
Paillot R, Rash NL, Garrett D, Prowse-Davis L, Montesso F, Cullinane A, Lemaitre L, Thibault JC, Wittreck S, Dancer A.Vaccination is highly effective to prevent, control, and limit the impact of equine influenza (EI), a major respiratory disease of horses. However, EI vaccines should contain relevant equine influenza virus (EIV) strains for optimal protection. The OIE expert surveillance panel annually reviews EIV evolution and, since 2010, the use of Florida clade 1 and 2 sub-lineages representative vaccine strains is recommended. This report summarises the development process of a fully- updated recombinant canarypox-based EI vaccine in order to meet the last OIE recommendations, including the vaccine mode ...
Magalhães FJR, Ribeiro-Andrade M, Souza FM, Lima Filho CDF, Biondo AW, Vidotto O, Navarro IT, Mota RA.Little is known about toxoplasmosis in animals of the Fernando de Noronha Island, Brazil. Therefore, we investigated the prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in the total population of pet cats (n=348), dogs (n=320), pigs (n=27), equines (n=101), as well as a significant portion of the population of feral cats (n=247) of the Island by Indirect Fluorescent Antibody Test. Anti-T. gondii IgG antibodies were found in 71.26%, 54.74%, 48.75%, 51.85% and 22.7%, of the pet and feral cats, dogs, pigs and equines, respectively, demonstrating a high prevalence of T. gondii infection in the wild and ...
Welsh CE, Duz M, Parkin TDH, Marshall JF.Electronic medical records from first opinion equine veterinary practice may represent a unique resource for epidemiologic research. The appropriateness of this resource for risk factor analyses was explored as part of an investigation into clinical and pharmacologic risk factors for laminitis. Amalgamated medical records from seven UK practices were subjected to text mining to identify laminitis episodes, systemic or intra-synovial corticosteroid prescription, diseases known to affect laminitis risk and clinical signs or syndromes likely to lead to corticosteroid use. Cox proportional hazard ...
de Oliveira LG, Barreto F, Hoff R, Rübensam G, Scherer Kurz MH, Galle G, Gonçalves FF.A method for the determination of five sedatives and 14 β-blocker residues in swine, bovine and equine kidney was validated. Samples were extracted with acetonitrile and purified using dispersive solid phase extraction (d-SPE) with Celite 545 with subsequent analysis by LC-MS/MS. A simplified protocol was applied to validate the method scope extension to include new matrices. Parameters such as recovery, trueness, linearity (r), relative standard deviation (RSD), decision limit (CCα) and method capability (CCβ) were measured for the bovine and equine kidney matrices. The method was applied ...
Diyes GCP, Rajakaruna RS.Otobius megnini infests mainly domesticated and wild animals and occasionally humans. It has been identified as an agent of human and horse otoacariasis in Sri Lanka. The number of nymphal stages in the life cycle of O. megnini varies from one to three in different geographic regions. The present study determined the life cycle of O. megnini infesting the racehorses in Nuwara Eliya. A tick colony was initiated from fully engorged nymphs collected from horses and maintained at 10°C, 22°C and 28°C. Immature stages were reared on New Zealand rabbits. Only the larvae weighing more than 0.9mg (8...
Müntener C, Kupper J, Naegeli H, Gassner B.A total of 292 adverse reactions to veterinary medicinal products were reported during the year 2015. This represents an increase of 9% compared to the previous year (268 reports). Similar to previous years, most of the reactions reported were linked to the use of antiparasitics (55.1%), non-steroidal anti-inflammatory products (8.9%) or antiinfectives (9.3%). The affected animal species were primarily dogs (198 reports) and cats (42 reports), followed by cattle (31 reports) and horses (8 reports). Additional 42 reports were provided within the frame of consultations with Tox Info Suisse in ZÃ...
Fabiani JV, Lyons ET, Nielsen MK.Parasite control in foals is of utmost importance due to the high susceptibility to parasitic infection and disease in this age group. Foals are commonly co-infected with strongyle and ascarid parasites, which complicate parasite control strategies. The present study retrospectively investigated necropsy records of foals born into a university herd kept without anthelmintic treatment since 1979. The aims were to statistically analyze the relationship between fecal egg counts, worm burdens, foal age, sex, and season with specific focus on Parascaris and Strongylus spp. A total of 83 foals born ...
of surveillance testing, April to June 2016Continuing reports of abortion due to equine herpesvirus type 1 infectionInternational disease occurrence in the second quarter of 2016These are among matters discussed in the most recent quarterly equine disease surveillance report, prepared by Defra, the Animal Health Trust and the British Equine Veterinary Association.
Efforts to detect West Nile virus (WNV) in the Vojvodina province, northern Serbia, commenced with human and mosquito surveillance in 2005, followed by horse (2009) and wild bird (2012) surveillance. The knowledge obtained regarding WNV circulation, combined with the need for timely detection of virus activity and risk assessment resulted in the implementation of a national surveillance programme integrating mosquito, horse and bird surveillance in 2014. From 2013, the system showed highly satisfactory results in terms of area specificity (the capacity to indicate the spatial distribution of t...
Grewar JD.Bluetongue (BT) and African horse sickness (AHS) are considered the most important orbiviral diseases in Southern Africans countries. The general endemic status makes these diseases challenging to be quanti ed in terms of their economic impact. Using country reported data from BT and AHS outbreaks and cases, as well as international trade data, the economic impact of BT and AHS is evaluated on local, regional, and global scales. Local scale impact in the Southern African region is underestimated as shown by the underreporting of BT and AHS. Exceptions occur during epidemic cycles of the diseas...
Alvarenga MA, Papa FO, Ramires Neto C.The use of stallion frozen semen minimizes the spread of disease, eliminates geographic barriers, and preserves the genetic material of the animal for an unlimited time. Significant progress on the frozen thawed stallion semen process and consequently fertility has been achieved over the last decade. These improvements not only increased fertility rates but also allowed cryopreservation of semen from "poor freezers." This article reviews traditional steps and new strategies for stallion semen handling and processing that are performed to overcome the deleterious effects of semen preservation a...
Basile RC, Yoshinari NH, Mantovani E, Bonoldi VN, Macoris DD, Queiroz-Neto A.Borreliosis caused by Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato is a cosmopolitan zoonosis studied worldwide; it is called Lyme disease in many countries of the Northern Hemisphere and Lyme-like or Baggio-Yoshinari Syndrome in Brazil. However, despite the increasing number of suspect cases, this disease is still neglected in Brazil by the medical and veterinary communities. Brazilian Lyme-like borreliosis likely involves capybaras as reservoirs and Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus ticks as vectors. Thus, domestic animals can serve as key carriers in pathogen dissemination. This zoonosis has been little studi...
Meseko CA, Ehizibolo DO, Nwokike EC, Wungak YS.Equine influenza virus (EIV) is a major cause of acute respiratory diseases in horses in most parts of the world that results in severe economic losses. Information on the epidemiology of EIV in tropical Africa is scanty. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to detect the presence of influenza A virus nucleoprotein (NP) in 284 horse sera in Kaduna State, Northern Nigeria. The ELISA-positive sera were further examined for hemagglutination inhibition (HI) antibodies to two strains each of H3N8 and H7N3 subtypes of influenza A virus. The results showed that antibodies against inf...
Rizzo C, Napoli C, Venturi G, Pupella S, Lombardini L, Calistri P, Monaco F, Cagarelli R, Angelini P, Bellini R, Tamba M, Piatti A, Russo F, Palù G....In Italy a national Plan for the surveillance of imported and autochthonous human vector-borne diseases (chikungunya, dengue, Zika virus disease and West Nile virus (WNV) disease) that integrates human and veterinary (animals and vectors) surveillance, is issued and revised annually according with the observed epidemiological changes. Here we describe results of the WNV integrated veterinary and human surveillance systems in Italy from 2008 to 2015. A real time data exchange protocol is in place between the surveillance systems to rapidly identify occurrence of human and animal cases and to de...
Thiemann A, Foxcroft A.The UK public and veterinary profession often think of the equine charity sector as dealing with issues directly related to the UK equine population - overproduction, rehoming, shelter and welfare. However, the Donkey Sanctuary, like many UK-based equine charities, also works in Europe and further afield to try to address a much broader range of issues, as Alex Thiemann and Andy Foxcroft explain.
Faverjon C, Leblond A, Lecollinet S, Bødker R, de Koeijer AA, Fischer EAJ.African horse sickness (AHS) and equine encephalosis (EE) are Culicoides-borne viral diseases that could have the potential to spread across Europe if introduced, thus being potential threats for the European equine industry. Both share similar epidemiology, transmission patterns and geographical distribution. Using stochastic spatiotemporal models of virus entry, we assessed and compared the probabilities of both viruses entering France via two pathways: importation of live-infected animals or importation of infected vectors. Analyses were performed for three consecutive years (2010-2012). Se...
Tozaki T, Ohnuma A, Takasu M, Nakamura K, Kikuchi M, Ishige T, Kakoi H, Hirora KI, Tamura N, Kusano K, Nagata SI.Gene doping has raised concerns in human and equestrian sports and the horseracing industry. There are two possible types of gene doping in the sports and racing industry: (1) administration of a gene-doping substance to postnatal animals and (2) generation of genetically engineered animals by modifying eggs. In this study, we aimed to identify genetically engineered animals by whole-genome resequencing (WGR) for gene-doping control. Transgenic cell lines, in which the erythropoietin gene (EPO) cDNA form was inserted into the genome of horse fibroblasts, were constructed as a model of genetica...
Camino E, Pozo P, Dorrego A, Carvajal KA, Buendia A, Gonzalez S, de Juan L, Dominguez L, Cruz-Lopez F.Serological analysis of equine piroplasmosis (EP), caused by Theileria equi and Babesia caballi, is included in the export testing requirements for most of the countries worldwide, thus involving a high economic impact on equine industry of EP-endemic countries, such as Spain. A total of 3368 serum samples from healthy horses collected prior to export between 2015 and 2018 in Spain were tested for antibodies against T. equi and B. caballi by using a competitive inhibition enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (cELISA). The overall seroprevalence results in Spain revealed that almost a quarter of t...
Hussain N, Shabbir RMK, Ahmed H, Afzal MS, Ullah S, Ali A, Irum S, Naqvi SK, Yin J, Cao J.Ticks are ectoparasites that act as vectors for transmission of various pathogens to wild and domesticated animals and pose a serious threat to human health. Because of the hot and humid conditions in different agro-ecological zones of Pakistan, ticks are abundant and parasitize a variety of animals. The aim of this study was to identify different tick species and distribution on different hosts especially livestock, such as sheep, goat, cattle, buffalo, and camel, and livestock associated canines and equines, such as horse, donkey, and dog, across different agro-ecological zones of Pakistan. ...
Taylor MA, Hunt KR.The term 'anthelmintic drug resistance' describes the heritable ability of some nematode parasites to survive treatment with anthelmintic drugs at the recommended therapeutic dose levels. Genes for resistance appear to be present in many of the important pathogenic nematodes of ruminants and horses. Under intensive management systems, where heavy reliance is placed on anthelmintic drugs for worm control, the selection of resistant genotypes may result in increased reports of the drugs failing to control the nematode populations against which they are aimed. Anthelmintic resistance has been rep...
Kim H, Lee YK, Kang SC, Han BK, Choi KM.Various new technologies have been applied for developing vaccines against various animal diseases. Virus-like particle (VLP) vaccine technology was used for manufacturing the porcine circovirus type 2 and RNA particle vaccines based on an alphavirus vector for porcine epidemic diarrhea (PED). Although VLP is classified as a killed-virus vaccine, because its structure is similar to the original virus, it can induce long-term and cell-mediated immunity. The RNA particle vaccine used a Venezuela equine encephalitis (VEE) virus gene as a vector. The VEE virus partial gene can be substituted with ...
Hayes CG, Wallis RC.Western equine encephalomyelitis (WEE) has been recognized as a serious public health problem in western North America for more than 30 years. WEE appears to exist endemically in numerous foci in that region, with a low incidence rate among humans. Severe outbreaks, however, have occurred periodically. For example, during 1941 a severe epidemic involving more than 3000 cases in humans occurred in North Dakota, Minnesota, and in the adjacent areas of Canada. The case fatality rate ranged from 8% to 15%. Epizootics among horses are more common. More than 600 cases of WEE were diagnosed among hor...
Laha R, Sasmal NK.Diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi infection in a horse stable of Eastern Region of India on the basis of examination of Giemsa stained blood smears have been done. A high percentage (12.74%) of horses of this stable was found suffering from T evansi infection. This high prevalence of T evansi in horses, in this area could be considered as an alarming situation which has never been explored previously in horses of Eastern Region of India. After a period of 2 months and 18 days of treatment with quinapyramine sulphate and quinapyramine chloride, reinfection with T evansi in treated horses of this ...
Steinman A, Navon-Venezia S.Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is an increasingly recognized global public health threat to the modern health-care system that could hamper the control and treatment of infectious diseases [...].
Ruple-Czerniak A, Bolte DS, Burgess BA, Morley PS.Nosocomial salmonellosis is an important problem in veterinary hospitals that treat horses and other large animals. Detection and mitigation of outbreaks and prevention of healthcare-associated infections often require detection of Salmonella enterica in the hospital environment. Objective: To compare 2 previously published methods for detecting environmental contamination with S. enterica in a large animal veterinary teaching hospital. Methods: Hospital-based comparison of environmental sampling techniques. Methods: A total of 100 pairs of environmental samples were collected from stalls us...
Gulati BR, Singha H, Singh BK, Virmani N, Khurana SK, Singh RK.The seroprevalence of Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) among equines was evaluated from January 2006 to December 2009 in 13 different states of India by hemagglutination inhibition (HI) test and virus neutralization test (VNT). Antibodies against JEV were detected in 327 out of 3,286 (10%) equines with a maximum prevalence reported in the state of Manipur (91.7%) followed by Gujarat (18.5%), Madhya Pradesh (14.4%), and Uttar Pradesh (11.6%). Evidence of JEV infection was observed in equines in Indore (Madhya Pradesh) where a 4-fold or higher rise in antibody titer was observed in 21 out of 34...
Erdman MM, Creekmore LH, Fox PE, Pelzel AM, Porter-Spalding BA, Aalsburg AM, Cox LK, Morningstar-Shaw BR, Crom RL.Contagious equine metritis (CEM) is a highly contagious venereal disease of horses caused by Taylorella equigenitalis. During testing for semen export purposes, a stallion in Kentucky was found to be T. equigenitalis culture positive in December of 2008. This finding triggered an extensive regulatory investigation to search for additional positive horses, determine the extent of the outbreak, identify the potential source of the outbreak, and ultimately return the United States to CEM-free status. The investigation included over 1000 horses located in 48 states. Diagnostic testing found a tota...
Ul Hasan M, Muhammad G, Gutierrez C, Iqbal Z, Shakoor A, Jabbar A.A cross-sectional study has been carried out in order to determine the prevalence of Trypanosoma evansi infection in susceptible hosts in the Punjab region (Pakistan). A total of 170 equines and 150 dromedary camels were examined. Five (3.3%) and 6 (4%) camels were positive at parasitological and serological examination, respectively. None of the equines tested positive at any method. These results seem to indicate that T. evansi infection has a relatively low prevalence in the Punjab region. However, efforts must be done in order to establish control measures in affected herds and avoid disse...
Hubálek Z, LudvÃková E, Jahn P, Treml F, Rudolf I, Svobodová P, Å ikutová S, Betášová L, BÃreÅ¡ J, MojžÃÅ¡ M, Tinák M, Boldižár M....A serological survey for West Nile virus (WNV) infection involved 395 horses from 43 administrative districts of the Czech Republic (163 animals) and 29 districts of Slovakia (232 animals), sampled between 2008 and 2011. Using a plaque-reduction neutralization microtest, antibodies to WNV were not detected in any horse from the Czech Republic, whereas 19 nonvaccinated horses from Slovakia had specific antibodies to WNV (no cross-reactions were observed with tick-borne encephalitis and Usutu flaviviruses in those animals). The seropositivity rate of nonvaccinated horses in Slovakia was 8.3% (95...
Wood JM, Mumford J, Schild GC, Webster RG, Nicholson KG.Single-radial-immunodiffusion (SRD) provides a sensitive and reproducible in vitro assay for haemagglutinin (HA) concentration in inactivated influenza vaccines. The use of SRD for human influenza vaccine standardization and application for equine and avian influenza vaccines is discussed. In clinical trials, vaccine HA concentration measured by SRD has been shown to be directly related to antibody responses and to protection against challenge. The use of SRD may considerably reduce the usage of animals for potency testing of veterinary influenza vaccines.
Encarnação JA, Herzog S, Eickmann M, Becker NI, Hermes N, Herden C.Borna disease (BD) is a severe endemic and fatal disorder caused by the neurotropic Borna disease virus (BDV) which mainly occurs in horses and sheep. Borna disease virus belongs to the order Mononegavirales, which includes many reservoir-bound viruses with high zoonotic and pathogenic properties including the filoviruses and lyssaviruses. Clinically manifest BD occurs in endemic areas of Germany, Switzerland, Liechtenstein, and Austria. A seasonal accumulation of cases in spring and summer, incidences that vary from year to year, and the recent detection of BDV in bicolored shrews (Crocidura ...
Burgess BA.Managing Salmonella in equine populations can be challenging due to the epidemiology of this disease. In particular, due to the range of clinical outcomes, the occurrence of subclinical infections, and intermittent shedding. This greatly affects the ability to detect shedding and can lead to widespread environmental contamination and transmission. The veterinary profession can reduce the risk to stablemates and their caretakers, while meeting their ethical obligation, by appropriately managing these risks within animal populations and environments.
El-Hage CM, Savage CJ, Minke JM, Ficorilli NP, Watson J, Gilkerson JR.During the 2007 Australian equine influenza (EI) outbreak, an accelerated primary course 14 day intervaccination schedule was proposed, but not widely implemented. Expert opinion was divided as to the efficacy of such a schedule given the lack of published data. This study determined the level and duration of humoral immunity following administration of a recombinant canarypox-vectored vaccine (ALVAC-EIV) with a primary intervaccination interval of 14 days and booster at 105 days. Objective: To examine whether protective levels of immunity of adequate duration were achieved following a primary...
Barnard BJ.Zebra are the only equine species native to South Africa. These animals roamed over much of the country in the 17th century when horses and donkeys were first imported. The first cases of African horse sickness (AHS) then occurred in the horses of hunters who entered zebra territory. AHS continued to occur on a country-wide basis until the beginning of the 20th century, though the number of outbreaks decreased as the populations of zebra collapsed through overhunting. For most of the 20th century almost all free-living zebra have been confined to the north-eastern parts of South Africa which a...
Kozytska T, Bassiouny M, Chechet O, Ordynska D, Galante D, Neubauer H, Wareth G.Anthrax is an acute infectious zoonotic disease caused by Bacillus anthracis that mostly affects grazing livestock and wildlife. Furthermore, B. anthracis is considered one of the most important biological agents of bioterrorism that could also be potentially misused in biological weapons. The distribution of anthrax in domestic animals and wildlife in Europe with a particular focus on Ukraine as a country of war was analyzed. Between 2005 and 2022, 267 anthrax cases were registered at the World Organization of Animal Health (WOAH) in animals in Europe, including 251 cases in domestic animals ...
Oladunni FS, Sarkar S, Reedy S, Balasuriya UBR, Horohov DW, Chambers TM.Equid herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) is a viral pathogen of horse populations worldwide spread by the respiratory route and is known for causing outbreaks of neurologic syndromes and abortion storms. Previously, we demonstrated that an EHV-1 strain of the neuropathogenic genotype, T953, downregulates the beta interferon (IFN-β) response in equine endothelial cells (EECs) at 12 h postinfection (hpi). In the present study, we explored the molecular correlates of this inhibition as clues toward an understanding of the mechanism. Data from our study revealed that EHV-1 infection of EECs significantly red...
Kouam MK, Kantzoura V, Masuoka PM, Gajadhar AA, Theodoropoulos G.Equine piroplasms in Greece were studied using the reverse line blot hybridization (RLB) assay. Three genotypes consisting of two Theileria (T. equi and T. equi-like) and one Babesia (B. caballi-like) were identified. Of 787 samples tested, 371 (47.14%) hybridised to catchall probe (probe specifically designed to capture any piroplasm species present in a sample), 346 (43.96%) to T. equi probe, 364 (46.25%) to T. equi-like probe, 0 (0%) to B. caballi probe and 3 (0.38%) to B. caballi-like probe. Seven samples gave faint signals with the catchall probe only, indicating the presence of known or ...
El-Hage C, Mekuria Z, Dynon K, Hartley C, McBride K, Gilkerson J.Equine herpesviruses (EHVs) are common respiratory pathogens in horses; whilst the alphaherpesviruses are better understood, the clinical importance of the gammaherpesviruses remains undetermined. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of, and any association between, equine respiratory herpesviruses EHV1, -2, -4 and -5 infection in horses with and without clinical signs of respiratory disease. Nasal swabs were collected from 407 horses in Victoria and included clinically normal horses that had been screened for regulatory purposes. Samples were collected from horses during Australia's e...
