Horse training involves the systematic process of teaching horses specific behaviors and skills to enhance their performance and manageability. This process encompasses a variety of techniques and methods tailored to the individual horse's temperament, age, and intended use, such as riding, racing, or working. Training regimens aim to develop desired traits such as obedience, agility, and endurance while ensuring the horse's physical and mental well-being. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore various aspects of horse training, including methodologies, behavioral outcomes, and the impact on equine welfare and performance.
Rubin L, Oppegard C, Hindz HF.Two experiments were conducted to study the effect of varying the temporal distrbution of conditioning sessions on equine learning behavior. In the first experiment, 15 ponies were trained to clear a small hurdle in response to a buzzer in order to avoid a mild electric shock. Three treatments were used. One group received 10 learning trials daily, seven times a week; one group was trained in the same fashion two times a week and one group was trained once a week. The animals conditioned only once a week achieved a high level of performance in significantly fewer sessions than the ones conditi...
Auer J.Degenerative joint disease is the most frequently diagnosed problem of the carpus. Horses afflicted with this disease should not be injected with corticosteroids, but should be rested for several months. Swimming exercise and intra-articular injections of hyaluronic acid during this time help to restore the integrity of the involved joints. Chip fractures of the various carpal bones and the distal radius are commonly diagnosed as the cause of the lameness. Not all horses with carpal fractures are candidates for surgery. It is important that the severity of the problem be realized and that the ...
Drevemo S, Fredricson I, Dalin G, Björne K.A high-speed cinematographic analysis of interlimb time and linear gait characteristics was carried out at racing speed (12.0 m/sec; 1:23.6 min/km) in 30 clinically sound Standard-bred trotters. In respect of the whole group of horses the racing trot was found to be a very regular and symmetric gait. The variation coefficient between different horses ranged from 8 to 21 per cent depending on the particular characteristic being investigated. The variations recorded in individual animals were about 60 per cent less than those found for the whole group. The most stable characteristics were the du...
Drevemo S, Dalin G, Fredricson I, Björne K.The reproducibility of certain gait characteristics was investigated in Standardbred trotters at a speed of 12.0 m/sec. Twenty-two horses were recorded twice on the same day and 4 of them on a third occasion 3 years later. The short-term reproducibility was shown to be very good. In the long-term study it was found that the stride length and duration of swing and stride had increased. This was interpreted as an effect of training.
Nielsen K, Vibe-Petersen G.Heart scores increased with age and training. Yearlings had average heart scores of approximately 90 milliseconds (msecs). This increased to approximately 110 msecs in 5-year-old horses, after which there was only slight further increase. In horses 4 years or older, regression analysis revealed a highly significant correlation between heart score and kilometre time. In younger horses the level of significance was less. There was a positive correlation between heart scores and earnings in races. Thus, horses with heart scores above 115 msecs had won considerably more than horses with lower hear...
Auer JA, Fackelman GE, Gingerich DA, Fetter AW.Effect of intraarticular injections of hyaluronic acid was evaluated in two groups of horses, using force plates to assess quantitatively the degree of lameness observed. In six horses, chip fractures were created surgically on the dorsomedial aspects of both radial carpal bones. After the horses were trained for 30 days, 40 mg of hyaluronic acid was injected intraarticularly into the limb showing the greater degree of lameness. Horses were worked for 2 more weeks and then were evaluated. A highly significant (P less than 0.01) increase in weight bearing on the treated limb was observed. Ten h...
Matlina ESh, Bobylev IF, Skorupski K, Pukhova GS.The content of adrenaline, noradrenaline, ACTH, cortisol and insulin in the blood and excretion of catecholamines with urine were studied in horses after physical and emotional exposures. The highest degree of the sympathoadrenal system (SAS) and hypophysioadrenal system (HAS) activation followed by the insulin content decrease was observed after training. The known emotional exposure (the noise of hyppodrome) astivated both parts of SAS and HAS. The unknown emotional experience (electronic music) produced a strong adrenal medullar reaction. Analysis of the correlations showed that the initial...
Freeman DE, Donawick WJ.An intravascular procedure was used to occlude the internal carotid artery of two horses with epistaxis caused by guttural pouch mycosis. In each horse, the affected internal carotid artery was ligated close to its origin. A balloon-tipped catheter was introduced into the artery distal to the ligature, and its tip was advanced beyond the site of infection. The balloon was then inflated so that the infected segment of artery was isolated from the cerebral vascular system. The catheters were removed at 14 and 51 days, and both horses were returned to training and racing. Neither horse had furthe...
Reich L.Horses' kicks can produce two types of head and neck injuries: injuries of the mid-face and injuries of the larynx. Typical cases as seen by the author are presented. The treatment of mid-face injuries is performed according to principles of plastic surgical repair. After frontal-nasal injuries, a revision of the nasal septum must be done. Involvement of the larynx requires external layer repair of mucosa and cartilage.
Kovár J.Changes in the concentration of lactate in the blood are described as a response to gradated physical strain, consisting of 1140 m of walk, 2 x 1000 m of trot, and 3 x x 5000 m of gallop in seven horses in thirteen experiments. The dependence of lactate concentration on speed in different track sections was examined and the aerobic and anaerobic stages of metabolism were clearly differentiated. It appears realistic on the basis of the onset and course of anaerobic metabolism to work out tests for evaluating the physical capacities and training abilities of horses.
Voith VL.Desensitization (gradually exposing an animal to a fear-inducing stimulus without evoking the fear response) and counter-conditioning (rewarding the animal for behavior incompatible with the fear response) are highly successful ways of eliminating or reducing fear responses and corresponding aggression.
Rose RJ, Ilkiw JE, Hodgson D.Thirty-one horses competing in a 100 kilometre endurance ride had electrocardiograms recorded before and after the ride from which the heart score of each horse was calculated. Blood was also taken to determine the packed cell volume (PCV) and total plasma protein (TPP) before the ride, after 60 kilometres (mid ride) and at completion of the ride. Statistical analysis of the heart scores showed that a faster group of horses had significantly higher heart scores than either a slower group or those eliminated due to inadequate recovery of heart rate. No horses developed electrocardiogram abnorma...
Willett K, Blackmore DJ.A method is described for the measurement of haptoglobin in equine serum using the peroxidase activity of the haemoglobin-haptoglobin complex. The problems of interference with Fe2+ and Fe3+ ions are described. Normal values for haptoglobin in 629 blood samples from thoroughbreds in training are presented showing a log normal distribution with a 5 per cent to 95 per cent range of 0.42 to 1.7 g/litre. There was no consistent alteration in haptoglobin concentration throughout the season in spite of a change in red cell size and total bilirubin concentration. It is concluded that the measurement ...
Franks PW.A technique was developed using radioactive isotopes as a source of radiation for the treatment of injuries to the superficial and deep flexor tendons and the associated ligaments in the horse. The treatment area was sub-divided so that different dosages could be applied over the limb as necessary. A plaster of Paris impression was taken of the whole area to be treated. In the isotope laboratory a plaster negative was made and loaded with the dose of radioactive isotope. The loaded cast was then strapped to the horse's limb for the calculated time, usually about three days. A total of 42 horse...
Snow DH, Guy PS.Training and detraining had little effect on the activity of glycogen synthase, hexokinase, glycerol 3-phosphate dehydrogenase or total protein. The activity of 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase increased markedly during training. After 5 weeks of detraining, the activity of 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase was returning to pre-training values, whilst by 10-week detraining, the levels were increasing again.
Rose RJ, Ilkiw JE, Martin IC.The effects of prolonged strenuous exercise on arterial and venous oxygen tension, carbon dioxide tension, pH, bicarbonate, standard bicarbonate, base excess, haemoglobin, packed cell volume and total plasma protein were studied in 36 horses during a 100 km endurance ride. There were significant changes in many parameters when pre-ride values were compared with both mid-ride and end of ride values. The prominent changes were the development of dehydration and a metabolic alkalosis. At the mid-ride sampling time those horses with higher heart rates had a greater degree of metabolic alkalosis th...
Nicholl TK, Fregin GF, Gerber NH.The literature on exercise physiology in the horse with special reference to swimming is briefly reviewed. The use of a pool for swimming horses is described and a technique discussed for the collection of haematologic and haemodynamic data using this form of exercise.
Munsters CC, van Iwaarden A, van Weeren R, Sloet van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan MM.Regular exercise testing in Warmblood sport horses may, as in racing, potentially help to characterise fitness indices in different disciplines and at various competition levels and assist in understanding when a horse is 'fit to compete'. In this review an overview is given of the current state of the art of exercise testing in the Olympic disciplines of eventing, show jumping and dressage, and areas for further development are defined. In event horses, a simple four-step incremental exercise test measuring heart rate (HR), lactate concentration (LA) and velocity (V) is most often used. In dr...
Chateau H, Robin D, Falala S, Pourcelot P, Valette JP, Ravary B, Denoix JM, Crevier-Denoix N.Inadequate track surfaces are believed to be a risk factor in the occurrence of musculoskeletal injuries, but quantification of the shocks and vibrations provoked by hoof impact on different ground surfaces (including new synthetic tracks) has been insufficiently documented in trotters under high-speed training conditions. Objective: To test the reliability and sensitivity of an accelerometric device to discriminate between the biomechanical effects of 2 different tracks at high speed. Methods: Three French Trotters were used and their right front hooves were equipped with one triaxial acceler...
de Oliveira K, Clayton HM, Dos Santos Harada É.The objective was to evaluate the effects of gymnastic training on stride characteristics of walk and trot in therapy horses carrying riders of different weights. Eighteen horses used for therapeutic riding 5 days/week were randomly divided into 2 groups. Nine horses performed gymnastic (GYM) exercises after therapeutic riding on 4 days/week for 3 months, 9 horses did no additional exercises (SED). On days 0 and 90, an inertial sensor mounted to the girth on the ventral midline was used to evaluate stride characteristics when horses were ridden at walk (1.3 m/second) and trot (3.0 m/secon...
To determine the causes of horse-related injuries in a rural western community. Methods: Prospective identification of persons with horse-related injuries and retrospective interviews with patients or witnesses to determine causes. Methods: A small rural community in Alberta where the western style of riding predominates. Methods: All patients presenting to two family medicine clinics or to the Sundre General Hospital emergency department. Methods: Factors contributing to the injury as recalled by patients or witnesses, and characteristics of the persons, horses, and injuries. Results: Two thi...
Farries G, Bryan K, McGivney CL, McGettigan PA, Gough KF, Browne JA, MacHugh DE, Katz LM, Hill EW.While over ten thousand genetic loci have been associated with phenotypic traits and inherited diseases in genome-wide association studies, in most cases only a relatively small proportion of the trait heritability is explained and biological mechanisms underpinning these traits have not been clearly identified. Expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) are subsets of genomic loci shown experimentally to influence gene expression. Since gene expression is one of the primary determinants of phenotype, the identification of eQTL may reveal biologically relevant loci and provide functional links ...
Tennent-Brown BS, Goetz TE, Manohar M, Hassan AS, Freeman DE, Bundy JS, Evans MR.Dehydration and the associated impairment of cardiovascular and thermoregulatory function comprise major veterinary problems in horses performing prolonged exercise, particularly under hot and humid conditions. For these reasons, there is considerable interest in using pre-exercise hyperhydration to help maintain blood volume in the face of the excessive fluid loss associated with sweat production during prolonged exertion. However, recently it was reported that pre-exercise hyperhydration causes arterial hypoxemia in horses performing moderate intensity exercise simulating the second day of a...
Ross MW, Richardson DW, Beroza GA.Thirteen Standardbreds had subchondral lucency of the third carpal bone (C3), described as single or multiple central areas of C3 bone loss in the radial fossa. Sclerosis of the radial fossa was also detected. The mean age of 9 stallions, 3 mares, and 1 gelding was 4.1 years (range, 3 to 7 years). All horses had an acute moderate to severe lameness referable to the middle carpal joint. A dorsoproximal dorsodistal (skyline) radiographic projection was most useful and identified mild (3 horses), moderate (6 horses), and severe (4 horses) subchondral lucency and sclerosis of the radial fossa. The...
Santschi EM, Slone DE, Embertson RM, Clayton MK, Markel MD.The purpose of our study was to determine the types of lesions that cause colic in juvenile Thoroughbreds, factors associated with these lesions and the subsequent survival and athletic performance of the juveniles. The age of juvenile Thoroughbreds requiring surgical exploration for abdominal pain has an influence on the type of lesion causing colic. The short-term survival rate (discharge from the hospital) after colic surgery for foals was 85% and was strongly influenced by the lesion causing colic. Thirteen percent of juveniles recovered from the first surgery experienced another severe co...
Legg K, Cochrane D, Gee E, Macdermid P, Rogers C.Physiological parameters and muscle activity of jockeys may affect their fall and injury risk, performance, and career longevity, as well as the performance and welfare of the horses they ride. Therefore, this study aimed to quantify the physiological demands, body displacement, and electromyographic (EMG) activity of twelve jockeys riding 52 trials and 16 professional races. The jockeys were instrumented with heart rate (HR) monitors, accelerometers, and integrated EMG clothing (recording eight muscle groups: quadriceps, hamstrings, gluteal, erector spinae/lower back, abdominal external obliq...
Weber JA, Woods GL.A technique was developed in which the accessory sex glands of stallions were visualized with transrectal ultrasonography during ejaculation. The technique was judged to be effective, since 10 of 11 stallions were trained to tolerate transrectal ultrasonography during ejaculation; they ejaculated during 195 of 200 attempts, and acceptable visualization of their accessory sex glands and excurrent ducts occurred during 97 of 195 ejaculations. Sixty-five percent (89 136 ) of the recordings were successful for stallions that weighed more than 300 kg, whereas 14% (8 59 ) of the recordings were succ...
Roland ES, Hull ML, Stover SM.Because musculoskeletal injuries to racehorses are common, instrumentation for the study of factors (e.g. track surface), which affect the ground reaction loads in horses during racing conditions, would be useful. The objectives of the work reported by this paper were to (1) design and construct a novel dynamometric horseshoe that is capable of measuring the complete ground reaction loading during racing conditions, (2) characterize static and dynamic measurement errors, and (3) demonstrate the usefulness of the instrument by collecting example data during the walk, trot, canter, and gallop fo...
Jacquet-Guibon S, Dupays AG, Coudry V, Crevier-Denoix N, Leroy S, Siñeriz F, Chiappini F, Barritault D, Denoix JM.A randomized controlled trial was performed on racing horses, to evaluate the efficacy of a new class of therapeutic agents in regenerative medicine-ReGeneraTing Agents® (RGTA®), to treat tendinopathies. Preliminary uncontrolled studies on tendon healing in racing horses with RGTA® (OTR4131)-Equitend® showed encouraging results, justifying performing a randomized, controlled, multicenter study with a two-year racing performance follow up. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of Equitend® versus placebo on acute superficial digital flexor tendonitis in racing French Stand...
Halama A, Oliveira JM, Filho SA, Qasim M, Achkar IW, Johnson S, Suhre K, Vinardell T.Equine performance in endurance racing depends on the interplay between physiological and metabolic processes. However, there is currently no parameter for estimating the readiness of animals for competition. Our objectives were to provide an in-depth characterization of metabolic consequences of endurance racing and to establish a metabolic performance profile for those animals. We monitored metabolite composition, using a broad non-targeted metabolomics approach, in blood plasma samples from 47 Arabian horses participating in endurance races. The samples were collected before and after the c...
Fazio E, Lindner A, Cravana C, Wegener J, Medica P, Hart-Mann U, Ferlazzo A.This study examined how a standard exercise test (SET) affected (1) thyroid hormones (THs) of horses and (2) the relationship between the V of horses and TH responses to the exercise in trained Standardbred racehorses (V is the velocity run at defined conditions at which a blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol/L is determined). Twelve trained Standardbred racehorses (six stallions and six mares) performed SETs until the horses' blood lactate concentration was at or above 4 mmol/L. The horses were divided into three age groups (2, 3, and 4 years old); each group consists of 4 horses respectivel...
Morlock M, Nassutt R, Bonin V.INTRODUCTION:: Cohesive bandages are applied to the legs of racehorses and horses with limb injuries for protection (prevention of abrasion) and support (reduction of movement at the fetlock joint). The support capacity of all commercially available bandages has been questioned. Consequently, the protection aspect of bandaging and the negative side effects, which can be caused by bandaging (eg pressure induced ischemia with subsequent necrosis), were emphasized. High pressures underneath bandages were shown to cause reduced blood flow. Pressures underneath certain types of bandages were shown ...
Shan R, Johnston AS, Rosanowski SM, O'Shea J, Riggs CM.Transverse stress fracture of the palmar cortex of the distal aspect of the third metacarpal bone (TSF PCD McIII) is poorly documented. Objective: To describe the typical signalment of this injury, the common clinical and radiological signs and prognosis. Methods: A retrospective hospital-based case series with follow-up of racing records. Methods: All cases of TSF PCD McIII diagnosed among racehorses in training at the Hong Kong Jockey Club between 2011 and 2019 were identified. Clinical records were reviewed and documented signs were recorded for each case. Findings from a predefined list of...
Meredith K, Bolwell CF, Rogers CW, Gee EK.To obtain data on the use of allied health therapy within competitive equestrian sport in the North Island of New Zealand. Methods: Data were collected during January 2010 by survey at show jumping and dressage championships in the North Island, and from racing yards in the Central Districts of New Zealand. The survey consisted of 30 open, closed and multiple-choice questions, and was conducted face-to-face, by the same interviewer. Information on the demographics of riders or trainers and horses in each discipline (show jumping, dressage, and Thoroughbred racing), the use of allied health the...
Bazzano M, Giudice E, Rizzo M, Congiu F, Zumbo A, Arfuso F, Di Pietro S, Bruschetta D, Piccione G.The aim of this study was to investigate whether a combined global positioning system (GPS)/heart rate (HR) monitoring system is a valuable tool to assess, step by step, the physiological response of HR and its relationship with speed in healthy horses competing in an official show jumping class. Six mares performing a standardised warm-up and jumping course were monitored using a HR/GPS device. Venous blood lactate (BL), assessed before and after exercise, showed a significant increase (P = 0.0004) following the physical effort. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) showed significant changes ...
Secombe CJ, Firth EC, Perkins NR, Bailey D, Anderson BH.To determine whether variation in x-ray-beam angle significantly affected photodensity of the third carpal bone (C3) in the horse using the tangential radiographic view, and indirectly determine whether radioabsorptiometry (RA) could be used to assess differences in bone mineral density (BMD) of C3 between exercised and non-exercised horses. Methods: The left distal carpal row was isolated post-mortem from 2-year-old Thoroughbred horses that had been either exercised (n=7) for up to 14 weeks using a standard training regimen for racehorses, or not exercised (n=7). The effect of variation in x-...
Negro S, Bartolomé E, Molina A, Solé M, Gómez MD, Valera M.The stress level is suggested to have a negative effect on horses during equestrian competitions, specifically in trotter racing. The main objectives of this study were to measure stress levels in Spanish Trotter Horse races with a reliable non-invasive method, and determining the threshold level of stress that leads to the best performance results and also shows when the stress perceived by the horse becomes distress. One hundred and thirty individuals were evaluated, measuring their performance (based on racing time per kilometre (TPK)) and their stress (based on eye temperature, assessed wi...
Spaak B, van Heel MC, Back W.It was shown that rolled-toe shoes smooth hoof-unrollment and thereby reduce peak loading of forelimbs in trotting Warmblood horses. Shoe design and shoeing technique for hind feet have been modified over recent decades from fully fitted, toe-clipped shoes to set-back, side-clipped shoes. Objective: To study the effects of different shoe modifications on loading and movement of the hind hoof. Methods: Ten clinically sound Warmblood horses were shod with 3 types of hind shoe: first, fully fitted, toe-clipped shoes, followed randomly by side-clipped shoes without a rolled toe that were set back ...
Root Kustritz MV, Chenoweth PJ, Tibary A.To determine whether veterinarians perceive that theriogenology training at veterinary medical schools in North America and the Caribbean is adequate for achievement of theriogenology skills commonly used in private practice. Methods: A survey was mailed to members of the veterinary medical associations of Alabama, Kansas, Pennsylvania, and Washington. With regard to reproductive procedures in bovine, equine, porcine, small ruminant, camelid, and small animal species, veterinarians (predominantly practitioners) were asked to rate the importance of that procedure in their job and to assess thei...
Condon V, Wilson B, Fleming PJS, Kennedy BPA, Keeley T, Barwick J, McGreevy P.Feral horses, also known as brumbies, are widely distributed across Australia with some populations being managed largely by human intervention. Rehoming of suitable feral horses following passive trapping has wide community acceptance as a management tool. However, there is little information about the number and relative economic value of feral horses compared with cohorts in the riding horse market. We examined 15,404 advertisements of horses for sale in 53 editions of Horse Deals, published from February 2017 to July 2022. Despite the considerable media attention and public scrutiny surrou...
Bou T, Ding W, Ren X, Liu H, Gong W, Jia Z, Zhang X, Dugarjaviin M, Bai D.Traditional Mongolian endurance training is an effective way to improve the athletic ability of the horse for endurance events and is widely used. This incorporates aerobic exercise and intermittent fasting and these altered physiologic conditions are associated with switches between muscle fibre types. Objective: To better understand the adaption of horse skeletal muscle to traditional Mongolian endurance training from muscle fibre characteristics and transcriptional levels and to explore possible molecular mechanisms associated with the endurance performance of horses. Methods: Before-after ...
Rudd C, Wheeler B, Pasiuk E, Schroeder K.Equine-Assisted Services (EAS) gained a foothold in the healthcare industry as a unique modality addressing the physical, cognitive, and psychological health issues for people across the lifespan. These services require a team approach, with volunteer support playing a prominent role in service delivery. Volunteers are a precious resource for EAS programs and step into a variety of support roles, including preparation and handling. However, little is known about the horse-volunteer relationship or factors that influence their working relationships. Therefore, the purpose of this web-based surv...
Goodwin D, McGreevy P, Waran N, McLean A.The long-held belief that human dominance and equine submission are key to successful training and that the horse must be taught to 'respect' the trainer infers that force is often used during training. Many horses respond by trialling unwelcome evasions, resistances and flight responses, which readily become established. When unable to cope with problem behaviours, some handlers in the past might have been encouraged to use harsh methods or devices while others may have called in a so-called 'good horseman' or 'horse whisperer' to remediate the horse. Frequently, the approaches such practitio...
Hernlund E, Egenvall A, Hobbs SJ, Peterson ML, Northrop AJ, Bergh A, Martin JH, Roepstorff L.The development of safety and quality standards for equestrian surfaces needs to be based on objective, repeatable measurements which allow comparisons between surfaces. These measurements should incorporate the assessment of surface performance by riders. This study provides data from objective and subjective assessment of functional properties of high-level show jumping competition and warm-up arenas. Twenty-five arenas in nine international show jumping events were evaluated by mechanical in-situ testing with a surface tester, rider assessments using visual analogue scales (198 riders provi...
Back W, Barneveld A, Bruin G, Schamhardt HC, Hartman W.This study was conducted to identify objective criteria to select young horses with a good gait, which is a prerequisite for good performance in adult horses. The trot of 24 26-month-old Dutch Warmbloods, led on a loose shank, was subjectively scored by a judge and objectively assessed on a treadmill by using kinematic analysis equipment. It appeared that forelimb and hind limb stride and swing duration, scapula rotation, forelimb maximal fetlock extension, forelimb maximal retraction, hind limb maximal protraction, maximal stifle flexion, and maximal tarsal flexion significantly correlated wi...
Buhl R, Carstensen H, Hesselkilde EZ, Klein BZ, Hougaard KM, Ravn KB, Loft-Andersen AV, Fenner MF, Pipper C, Jespersen T.Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most common arrhythmia affecting performance in horses. However, no previous studies have quantified the performance reduction in horses suffering from AF. Objective: To quantify the effect of AF on maximum velocity (Vmax ), maximum heart rate (HRmax ), heart rate recovery (T100 ), hematologic parameters and development of abnormal QRS complexes. Methods: Nine Standardbred trotters. Methods: Two-arm controlled trial. Six horses had AF induced by means of a pacemaker and 3 served as sham-operated controls. All horses were subjected to an exercise test to fatigue ...
Sullivan HM, Barrett MF, Zhou T, Kawcak CE.Ultrasound remains a mainstay in proximal suspensory ligament (PSL) evaluation. Despite recent improvements facilitating earlier diagnosis/treatment, needs exist for (1) characterization of normal ultrasonographic PSL cross-sectional area (CSA) in specific breeds/disciplines, (2) improved detection of early/subtle changes in the PSL, and (3) an understanding of suspensory ligament (SL) morphology change from work-related stress. The objectives of this study were to establish normal PSL CSA in Quarter Horses (QH) used for cutting via angle contrast ultrasonography, ultrasonographically monitor ...
