"Horses" is a broad topic that encompasses various aspects of equine biology, behavior, and management. This category includes studies on the anatomy, physiology, and genetics of horses, as well as their behavior, nutrition, and care. Research in this area may also cover the historical and cultural significance of horses, their roles in agriculture, sport, and therapy, and the challenges associated with their conservation and welfare. The page aggregates peer-reviewed research articles and scholarly studies that explore the multifaceted relationships between humans and horses, examining both scientific and socio-economic perspectives.
Raisis AL, Hodgson JL, Hodgson DR.Equine neonatal septicaemia was confirmed in 24 foals hospitalised at the Rural Veterinary Centre between 1989 and 1992 with suspected septicaemia. Septicaemia was confirmed by culture of bacteria from blood of live foals and tissues obtained at necropsy of foals that died or were euthanased. Pathogenic bacteria isolated were predominantly Enterobacteriaceae (including Escherichia coli and Salmonella serovars) and Actinobacillus equuli. Clinical manifestations of septicaemia included signs of depression, dehydration, abnormalities in body temperature and manifestations of localised infection i...
Gibson KT, Hodge H, Whittem T.Enzyme immunoassay for prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), and radioimmunoassays for prostaglandin F2 alpha (PGF2 alpha), 6-keto-PGF1 alpha, and leukotriene B4 (LTB4) were performed on synovial fluid from normal middle carpal joints of 10 horses, and from 30 middle carpal or antebrachiocarpal joints of horses affected by degenerative joint disease and chip fractures to compare the concentrations of inflammatory mediators. Significantly greater concentrations of PGE2 were detected in fluid from affected than from control joints, but there were no significant differences in the mean concentrations of PGF2 ...
Alef M, Oechtering G.The continuous fiberoptical measurement of the mixed venous partial oxygen saturation is described. It is an enrichment of the diagnostical possibilities in veterinary medicine. In the horse it is of great interest, because disturbances of the pulmonary gas exchange and the myocardial function are common in the anaesthetised horse, and reliable methods of assessing the cardiac output are rare. Using this monitoring technique in nearly 100 equine high risk patients facilitated insight into the complex changes of the pulmonary, cardiac and circulatory function in the anaesthetised horse. The reg...
Hardy J, Bertone AL, Muir WW.We measured regional blood flow in synovial tissue of the antebrachiocarpal, midcarpal, and metacarpophalangeal joints of six normal adult anesthetized horses by using 15-microns-diameter polystyrene colored microspheres. The midcarpal fibrous capsule and synovial membrane blood flows (SMBF) were compared, and the effect of increased intra-articular pressure (30 and 60 mmHg) on midcarpal SMBF was investigated. Dorsal, medial palmar, and lateral palmar midcarpal SMBF measured 108 +/- 36, 61 +/- 12, and 50 +/- 11 microliters.min-1.g-1, respectively. Antebrachiocarpal, dorsal, and palmar metacarp...
Schumacher J, Ford TS, Brumbaugh GW, Honnas CM.Full-thickness, circular, cutaneous wounds (4 cm diameter) were created on metacarpi and metatarsi of 5 horses. On day 6, all 4 wounds on each horse received a stored autogenous split-thickness sheet graft. Grafts were obtained from the horse's ventrolateral thorax with a pneumatic dermatome at the time the cutaneous wounds were created. Grafts were coapted to the granulation bed of 2 wounds of each horse with fibrin glue. Grafts were coapted to the cutaneous margin of all 4 wounds of each horse with cyanoacrylate glue. Bandages were changed daily until the study ended at 14 d. When the bandag...
Otte K, Rozell B, Gessbo A, Engström W.A cDNA for equine insulin-like growth factor I (IGF I) has been isolated by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and subsequently sequenced. The sequenced fragment contained 465 bp including the coding regions for the signal peptide, the entire mature protein, and 4 amino acids into the E-peptide. Like its human counterpart, the mature equine IGF I peptide contains 70 amino acids and was 100% homologous between horse and man. The 49-amino-acid signal peptide had the threonine in position 26 of the human signal peptide substituted by isoleucine. The nucleotide homology across the ent...
Riddolls LJ, Byford GG, McKee SL.The biological and imaging characteristics of technetium-99m imidodiphosphate (Tc99m-IDP) were measured in 4 horses once and in 1 horse twice. All computational results are expressed with 95.5% (mean +/- 2 SD) confidence limits. The clearance half-time of the radiopharmaceutical from the blood was 29.6 +/- 2.3 min. The percentage of the administered dose circulating in the whole-blood volume at 4 h was 3.9 +/- 0.8%. The Tc99m-IDP radioactivity confined at the plasma fraction of the whole blood at 4 h was 85.3 +/- 1.6%. At 8 h, approximately 45 +/- 16% of the dose administered had been excreted...
Muylle S, Simoens P, Lauwers H.It is generally considered that the age of a horse can be determined by examining its incisor teeth. However, the criteria used to determine age from dental configurations differ widely. The existence of this variety of rules and guidelines was the challenge for the present examination. Detailed descriptions of the incisor teeth of 212 horses of registered age were recorded and the results were compared with the age criteria of various authors. The time at which teeth were shed and the appearance of dental stars seemed to be more reliable features than the disappearance of the cups. The disapp...
Ensink JM, Klein WR, Barneveld A, van Miert AS, Vulto AG.To evaluate the side effects of oral pivampicillin and trimethoprim/ sulphadiazine, 200 horses receiving these antimicrobial agents were studied. The horses received either trimethoprim/ sulphadiazine (30 mg/kg twice daily) or pivampicillin (25 mg/kg twice daily) for three or more days. No adverse effects other than loose faeces and diarrhoea were detected. The risk of diarrhoea was significantly less after the oral administration of pivampicillin (3 per cent) than after trimethoprim/ sulphadiazine (7 per cent). Horses whose appetite was reduced appeared to be predisposed to develop diarrhoea ...
Dabareiner RM, Sullins KE, Goodrich LR.With the exception of lipoma, neoplasia of the gastrointestinal tract is rare in horses. Lymphosarcoma is the most common neoplasm of the hematopoietic system in horses. In horses with lymphosarcoma of the large colon, clinical signs may include intermittent signs of mild abdominal pain, weight loss, pyrexia, and pelvic flexure impaction caused by impingement of the colonic lumen by the mass. Peritoneal fluid analysis may be normal or have a high total protein concentration. If signs of metastasis are not evident, resection of the large colon affected by the mass may prolong survival.
Hanson RR, Schumacher J, Humburg J, Dunkerley SC.To evaluate clinical and laboratory findings for horses treated medically for ileal impactions. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: 10 horses with primary ileal impaction that were treated successfully with medical treatment alone. Methods: Medical records were reviewed for all horses with naturally developing ileal impaction seen at our hospital between 1990 and 1994. Results: Transrectal palpation revealed an impaction in the midabdominal area in all horses. Generalized distention of the small intestine was evident in 6 horses, whereas 4 horses were examined early in the course of t...
Each year, traumatic brain injury (TBI) is associated with 52,000 deaths and accounts for one third of all injury deaths in the United States; in addition approximately 80,000 persons who survive TBI incur some loss of function, residual disability, and increased medical-care needs because of these injuries. Major causes of TBI are motor-vehicle crashes, falls, assaults, and sports and recreational activities. During 1992-1993 in Oklahoma, horseback riding was the leading cause of sports-related TBI. To further characterize horseback-riding-associated TBIs, the Oklahoma State Department of Hea...
Mair TS.Three horses developed severe pulmonary infections while being treated with systemic corticosteroids for other diseases. Two of them had an immune-mediated skin disease, compatible with a diagnosis of pemphigus foliaceus, and one had severe chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Case 1 developed diffuse pneumonia from which Streptococcus zooepidemicus and Bacteroides melaninogenicus were isolated, and it responded to antibiotic therapy. Case 2 developed septicaemia, pulmonary thrombosis and pneumonia associated with Escherichia coli, and died during a peracute illness with signs of disseminate...
Atwill ER, Mohammed HO, Lopez JW.To determine whether mean annual frequency and destination of equine travel was associated with exposure to Ehrlichia risticii and whether these associations were modified by horses' place of residence. Methods: Cross-sectional study. Methods: 511 equine operations containing 2,587 horses were visited in New York state from a target population of 39,000 operations. Methods: Each horse was tested for serum antibodies against E risticii, using indirect fluorescent antibody. Information on the horse's travel history, farm's management practices, and surrounding ecology was obtained by personal in...
Ball MA, Allen D, Parks A.A 13 year-old pony was evaluated because of right hind limb lameness of acute onset. Radiographs of the right tarsus obtained shortly after the onset of lameness were normal, but results of nuclear scintigraphy were abnormal. Two radiolucent subchondral cyst-like lesions of the distal part of the tibia were seen on radiographs obtained 9 months later. The lesions were surgically decompressed, and the pony was sound 1 year later. It is hypothesized that a traumatic insult created a crack or split in the articular cartilage that allowed subsequent development of the cyst-like lesions.
Scheffer CJ, Sloett van Oldruitenborgh-Oosterbaan MM.In the horse, it is important to make a reliable ECG recording during exercise as cardiac arrhythmia is one of the possible causes of poor performance. The purpose of the present study was to obtain a satisfactory, standardized method for ECG recording by computer during a standardized treadmill exercise test and to evaluate the procedure both in healthy and in diseased horses. Ten experienced healthy research horses were used to develop and adapt the original method (for humans) of computerized ECG recording with the Cardio Perfect software program and to obtain reference values for heart rat...
Fortier LA, Fubini SL, Flanders JA, Divers TJ.Two calves and two foals presented with episodic clinical signs of diffuse central nervous system disease. Portosystemic anomalies were tentatively diagnosed based on the history, clinical signs and increased serum concentrations of blood ammonia and total serum bile acids with normal concentrations of liver derived enzymes. one calf died before intraoperative contrast portography, whereas the other calf and both foals had marked clinical improvement after intensive medical therapy. Surgical correction was attempted in these three animals and was successful in one foal. A right paracostal celi...
Harkins JD, Mundy GD, Stanley S, Woods WE, Boyles J, Arthur RA, Sams RA, Tobin T.Plasma and urinary concentrations of procaine and the duration of response to procaine after its administration as a local anaesthetic to horses were studied. Following injection of a clinical dose of procaine HCl (80 mg), the concentration of procaine in plasma was less than the lower limit of quantitation and unsuitable for threshold determination. Therefore, the urinary concentration of procaine was determined after injection of a dose of 5 mg procaine HCl, the highest no-effect dose (HNED) of this agent. Free unconjugated procaine in equine urine reached a peak concentration of 23.7 ng/mL,...
Lopes-Pereira CM, Harun M, Schmidtova D, Timane I, Mabasso M, Otto F, Bogin E.Adapting the concept of "bed-side" patient analysis, the Boehringer-Mannheim Reflotron was evaluated for its possible use in veterinary medicine under outdoor-field conditions. Horse blood was analysed with the Cobas Bio analyzer, and indoor and outdoor analyses were also performed with the Reflotron. All values showed close agreement with no significant differences. Good correlation coefficients (r values around 0.9000) were also seen between all methods used. The Reflotron was operated under outdoor-field conditions by using, whenever available, an on-farm electricity source, or a gas operat...
Atwill ER, Mohammed HO, Lopez JW, McCulloch CE, Dubovi EJ.To locate counties within New York state with a high seroprevalence among the equine population, to determine host, management, and environmental factors that were associated with seropositivity to Ehrlichia risticii, and to determine evidence for arthropod- or helminth-mediated transmission of E risticii to horses. Methods: Cross-sectional study. Methods: A random sample of 3,000 of the 39,000 equine operations in New York state was selected, and 2,587 horses from 511 operations were tested. Methods: Blood samples were collected from horses and tested for seropositivity, using the indirect fl...
Boersema JH, Eysker M, Maas J, van der Aar WM.The reappearance of strongyle eggs in faeces after treatment with ivermectin or pyrantel embonate was investigated in 22 foals, 36 yearlings, and 45 adult horses on five Dutch horse farms. The results confirmed earlier studies which showed an egg reappearance period of 9 and 6 weeks after ivermectin and pyrantel treatment, respectively. There were no differences between the egg reappearance periods of foals, yearlings, and adult horses. The mean egg counts of the yearlings were, however, consistently higher than the mean egg counts of the adult horses and foals in both ivermectin- and pyrantel...
Hagedorn HW, Zuck S, Schulz R.The azaphenothiazine neuroleptic prothipendyl (Dominal) is suspected to be administered illegally at low doses to race-horses to improve their performance. Since for this species pharmacokinetic data of the drug are missing we studied its elimination from blood and urine in a standard-bred mare. At a low (subtherapeutic) dose (i.v., 0.24 mg/kg) the horse is described to be less excited while locomotor activity and attention remain unaffected. In contrast, sedation and ataxia are brought about at 1 mg/kg (therapeutic dose). Identification of prothipendyl given i.v. at subtherapeutic doses was a...
Chevalier H, Posner LP, Ludders JW, French TW, Erb HN, Gleed RD.To determine accuracy and precision of a point-of-care hemoglobinometer for measuring hemoglobin concentration and estimating PCV in horses. Methods: Prospective trial. Methods: 55 horses. Methods: Blood samples were obtained from 43 horses examined at a veterinary teaching hospital. Hemoglobin concentration was measured with the hemoglobinometer and by means of the standard cyanmethemoglobin method; PCV was measured by centrifugation. Blood samples were also obtained from 12 healthy horses, and PCV of aliquots of these samples was altered to approximately 5 to 80% by removing or adding plasma...
Manso Filho HC, McKeever KH, Gordon ME, Costa HE, Watford M.One of the hallmarks of insulin resistance is a reduction in glucose transporter-4 (Glut-4) expression in adipose tissue but not in skeletal muscle. However, while Glut-4 has been demonstrated in skeletal and cardiac muscles in horses it has not been demonstrated in adipose tissue. The initial objectives of the present study were: (1) to test the hypothesis that Glut-4 expression would vary between selected key skeletal muscles; (2) to test the hypothesis that it would also vary between representative adipose tissue depots, and (3) to see whether expression would be greater in adipose tissue c...
Garrett PD.Thoracic limbs from 8 horses were dissected. The dorsoscapular ligament was determined to consist of a collagenous part that fused to the surface of the thoracolumbar fascia and of an elastic part that extended laterally from the collagenous part to attach to the medial surface of the scapula and interdigitate with fibers of the serratus ventralis thoracis muscle.
Sätter JK, McGawley K, Connysson M, Staunton CA.To identify how riding rein direction (left and right) and rider asymmetry affect tölt performance in Icelandic horses. Two horses were ridden in tölt by four riders on both left and right reins. Riders wore pressure insoles that measured the total absolute force (FAbs) and absolute force difference (FDiff) in their left and right feet in the stirrups. A 3D motion-analysis system recorded the degrees of side-to-side movement in the pelvis (RollP) and in the thoracolumbar region (RollT). Lateral advanced placement (LAP) and duty factor (DF) were calculated to determine tölt performance. One-...
McConkey S, López A, Pringle J.A Clydesdale mare was examined for weight loss, inappetence, ptyalism, and dysphagia. The main abnormality revealed by serum biochemistry was a marked hyperglobulinemia, and protein electrophoresis revealed a monoclonal gammopathy in the gamma region. The urine was positive for Bence Jones proteins. These findings suggested a plasma cell tumor. The neoplasm could not be located with extensive antemortem examination. At postmortem, neoplastic cells morphologically compatible with plasma cells and positive for equine IgG with imunoperoxidase staining infiltrated the pericardium, mediastinal stro...
Merchán A, Koenig J, Côté N, Cribb N, Monteith G.The objective of this retrospective study was to determine the occurrence of joint-related complications after elective arthroscopy of the tibiotarsal joint (TTJ) in 329 horses, and the association with specific clinical parameters. Data were collected from medical records of horses undergoing elective tibiotarsal joint arthroscopy for fragment removal. Exact conditional univariate regression was used to determine significant risk factors for joint-related post-operative complications. Of 485 joints, 2 (0.4%) developed surgical site infection, 4 (0.8%) developed septic arthritis, 1 (0.2%) deve...
Canada NC, Beard WL, Guyan ME, White BJ.To determine the influence of 3 types of bandages on sub-bandage pressures over the distal limb, carpus, and tarsus. Methods: Observational study. Methods: Eight healthy horses. Methods: Each of the 6 following bandages was applied on each horse in randomized order: (1) distal limb compression bandage (DLC), (2) double layer bandage (DL), (3) inner sanctum bandage (IS), (4) carpal compression bandage (CC), (5) tarsal compression bandage (TC), and (6) adhesive elastic carpal bandage (C-ELA). Sub-bandage pressures were measured with the Picopress compression measuring system (Microlab Electonica...
Souza AF, Souza Junior AA.The equine hoof balance has been the subject of several studies, reflecting the importance of hooves for the good health and performance of these animals. An important condition for the hooves health is its loading, where too much weight in a small area can increase the chances of lameness. Therefore, an equation has been proposed to identify the relationship between body mass and hoof size and has been used in several studies. However, a clear description of how it was developed and what its results really indicate is not available in the literature. In light of this, this article aims to des...
Stevenson KR, Parkinson TJ, Wathes DC.Jugular venous blood samples were collected throughout a complete oestrous cycle from 9 mares for measurement of progesterone and oxytocin by radioimmunoassay. Mean oxytocin concentrations remained at approximately 1 pg/ml throughout, with no evidence of cyclic variation in the release pattern. Extracts of corpus luteum and follicles obtained from a further 33 mares at different stages of the cycle all contained oxytocin concentrations of less than 10 pg/g wet weight of tissue. We conclude that the ovaries are not a source of circulating oxytocin during the oestrous cycle in this species. The ...
Sampaio BFB, DeRossi R, Vieira N, Milan B, Ávila LG.The objective of the study was to compare the effects of caudal epidural bupivacaine and dexmedetomidine (DEX) combination, with bupivacaine or DEX plain for perineal analgesia in mares. Six healthy saddle mares weighing 330-370 kg and aged 10-15 years were used in this study. Each mare was assigned to receive three treatments: 0.04 mg/kg 0.25% bupivacaine (BP), 2 μg/kg DEX (DX), or 0.02 mg/kg bupivacaine and 1 μg/kg DEX (BPDX). The order of treatments was randomized. All drugs were injected into the caudal epidural space (Co1-Co2) through a 16-G Tuohy epidural needle. After the epidur...
Cribb PH.Forty-five horses were maintained on halothane or isoflurane anesthesia for at least 90 minutes and received positive pressure ventilation after the first 30 minutes of anesthesia. Parameters monitored included end-tidal partial pressure of carbon dioxide (ETPCO2), arterial blood pressure, and arterial blood gases and pH. There was a statistically significant correlation between end-tidal carbon dioxide and arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2) for both halothane and isoflurane anesthesia. There was no significant correlation between end-tidal carbon dioxide and either body weigh...
Ferrante PL, Freeman DE, Ramberg CF, Kronfeld DS.Multicompartmental analysis was applied to study the kinetics of D-xylose distribution after its intragastric administration to healthy mares deprived of food for 12, 36, 72, and 96 hours. Disposition of D-xylose was described by a 5-compartment model. Maximal plasma D-xylose concentration was similar for 12 and 36 hours of food deprivation and was greater (P = 0.0001) than the values for 72 and 96 hours. Peak concentration of D-xylose appeared progressively later as food deprivation proceeded (P = 0.0001). Fractional rate of transfer (k1,6) was less after 96 hours of food deprivation, compare...
Warm-season grasses (WSG) incorporated into traditional cool-season rotational grazing systems to increase summer yields are typically established in monoculture in separate pasture areas. Few studies have evaluated alternative interseeded establishment of WSG, despite potential benefits for improving biodiversity and land-use efficiency. The objective of this study was to determine the impact of establishment method (monoculture vs. interseeded) on crabgrass pasture forage yield, nutritive value, and preference under equine grazing. Three adult standardbred mares grazed two main plots on two ...
Goodrich LR, Nixon AJ, Conway JD, Morley PS, Bladon BM, Hogan PM.An in-depth review of dynamic compression plate (DCP) fixation of propagating medial condyle fractures of the third metacarpus or metatarsus has not been previously reported. Objective: To describe the technique, evaluate short-term outcome and long-term race performance of racehorses that underwent DCP fixation for repair of propagating or spiralling medial condylar fractures of the third metacarpal (McIII) or metatarsal (MtIII) bone. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: The surgical case records of 30 horses with propagating fractures of the medial condyle of McIII or MtIII were revi...
Lopes Ede P, Siqueira JB, Pinho RO, Guimarães JD, Rocha AN, de Carvalho GR, Torres CA.The objective of this study is to evaluate the reproductive efficiency in donors and recipient Mangalarga Marchador mares in commercial programmes of embryo transfer (ET) and the effects of some reproductive characteristics and ET methodology on conception rates in the recipient mares. A total of 1140 flushing procedures were performed and 830 embryos (72.8%) were recovered. There were no differences between the rates of embryonic recovery in the different breeding seasons (p > 0.05) and 92.8% of the recovered embryos were 8-9 days old. There was no difference in the embryonic recovery regardi...
Berry CR, Merritt AM, Burrows CF, Campbell M, Drudge JH.Five weanling ponies were subjected to an intensive 6-week deworming program after which 4 Ag-AgCl bipolar electrodes were implanted surgically on the distal ileum. For 3 hours each day for 5 consecutive days, ileal myoelectrical activity was recorded from fed ponies under 3 sequential conditions: preinoculation, after oral administration of 1,000 killed Strongylus vulgaris infective larvae (3 ponies), and after oral administration of 1,000 live S vulgaris infective larvae. Recordings were analyzed for slow wave frequency, percentage duration of phases I, II, and III of the migrating myoelectr...
Szabó MP, Castagnolli KC, Santana DA, de Castro MB, Romano MA.Since host immune reaction to ticks interferes with tick-borne pathogen transmission, it is important to recognize naturally occurring tick-host immune relationships to better understand the epidemiology of such infectious diseases. Amblyomma cajennense is an important tick-borne disease vector in the Neotropical region and horses maintain it in domestic environments. In the present work intradermal testing of A. cajennense tick exposed horses and donkeys using crude tick antigens was used to evaluate the type of hypersensitivity induced by infestations. Animals sensitized by A. cajennense inf...
Tarello W.A report from England has suggested that Chronic Fatigue Syndrome exists in equines and constitutes an emerging veterinary problem. Preliminary epidemiological studies seem to confirm the zoonotic implications of CFS. An arsenical drug, sodium thiacetarsamide, was administered to four horses with a diagnosis of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS), already treated unsuccessfully with different medications. The CFS-like lethargy, with accompanying symptoms and signs, of the four animals obtained a complete remission after intravenous treatment with this drug at low dosage (0.1 mg/kg/day). No adverse ...
Turk MA, Gallina AM, Perryman LE.From Jan 1, 1967 through June 1980, 21 cases of Bacillus piliformis infection (Tyzzer's disease) in foals were diagnosed at the Washington Animal Disease Diagnostic Laboratory. Affected foals died between 7 and 35 days of age. Of 4 Arabian foals with the disease, 2 also had combined immunodeficiency.
Alemayehu MT, Abebe BK, Haile SM.Horses are used for a variety of purposes in Ethiopia. However, their service is hampered by a variety of health issues. Strongylosis is a parasitic infestation of the gastrointestinal tract that has a significant impact on the working ability, reproductive performance, well-being, and welfare of horses. The existence of Strongylosis in the study area is reported from clinical cases; however, its prevalence has not been well studied. Unassigned: The current study was carried out from January 2019 to July 2019, to determine the prevalence and associated risk factors of Strongyle in horses in an...
Vitte A, Rossignol F, Mespoulhes-Rivière C, Lechartier A, Röecken M.To report a combination of standing laparoscopic technique for intra-abdominal dissection of the mesovarial pedicle followed by a limited ventral median celiotomy under general anesthesia for removal of enlarged ovaries in mares. Methods: Case series. Methods: Mares (n = 20) aged 3-22 years with unilateral enlarged ovaries. Methods: Enlarged ovaries were confirmed by transrectal palpation and ultrasonography. After sedation, 3 laparoscopic portals were made in the paralumbar fossa. The mesovarium was desensitized and dissected using a vessel sealing device, and the ovary was left free in t...
de Miguel Garcia C, Campoy L, Parry SA, Martin-Flores M, Gleed RD.Several factors affect the quality of recovery from general anesthesia in horses. These can increase the likelihood of injury. Body and limb position during recovery may correlate with successful standing. The objective of this study was to identify the prevalence of and the factors associated with successful standing at the first attempt in horses undergoing general anesthesia. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: Video of recovery and anesthetic records from 221 equine patients were reviewed by six veterinary students. Cases with poor video quality or incomplete anesthetic records were exc...
