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Topic:Kinematics
Kinematics in horses refers to the study of motion without considering the forces that cause it. This field involves analyzing the movement patterns of horses, including gait, stride length, joint angles, and limb trajectories. Kinematic analysis is performed using technologies such as high-speed cameras and motion capture systems to collect data on equine locomotion. This information is valuable for understanding normal and abnormal movement, assessing performance, and identifying potential lameness or injury. The study of kinematics provides insights into the biomechanics of horse movement and contributes to advancements in training, rehabilitation, and veterinary care. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the methodologies, findings, and applications of kinematic analysis in equine science.
Influence of shoes with different weights on the motion of the limbs in Icelandic horses during toelt at different speeds. Weight boots are commonly used for Icelandic horses to increase the height of the flight arc of the forelimbs in toelt. Objective: To show the influence of weights and toelting speed on the height of the swing phase. Methods: Eight Icelandic horses (mean ± s.d. 12 ± 3 years old, 369 ± 46 kg) were used. Reflecting makers were placed on the dorsal side of each hoof. The motion was collected with a kinematic system (10 cameras, 120 Hz sample rate, 1.3 Mpixels resolution). The horses were ridden in toelt by 2 experienced riders on a treadmill at 2 different speeds (2.96 m/s ± 0.30 and 4.10 m/s...
Variation in frontal plane joint angles in horses. Conformation in horses is often considered an indicator of athletic ability, performance and resistance to orthopaedic disease. Evaluation is performed in the standing horse and repeatability influenced by stance. Ground reaction forces increase in the moving horse as speed increases. Objective: To determine the effect of locomotion on equine carpus, tarsus, metacarpophalangeal (MCP) and metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joints in the frontal plane. Objective: Valgus/varus angulation will change when moving. Methods: Kinematic data were collected standing, walking and trotting for 2 groups of horses. ...
Electromyography activity of the equine splenius muscle and neck kinematics during walk and trot on the treadmill. Skeletal muscle activity can be concentric or eccentric, anisometric or isometric and correlation of the equine splenius muscle activity with the movement of its effector joints at walk and trot has not yet been fully characterised. Objective: Investigating activity of the splenius muscle together with kinematics of head and cranial neck at walk and trot. Methods: Kinematics and surface electromyography were measured in 6 horses (8-20-years-old, 450-700 kg) without signs of neck pain. Markers were placed on left and right crista facialis, and on left and right cervical vertebrae 1 and 3. Head ...
Comparison of kinematic symmetry index calculations and the effects of straight and circular trotting. When assessing lameness in horses, left to right ratios of kinematic parameters are often used to quantify movement symmetry. Different methods of symmetry related measures have been proposed and inertial sensor data was used to evaluate the application of 3 methods of symmetry calculation during straight and circular trotting. Objective: To compare 3 sensor based methods of symmetry index calculation to assess; tuber coxae vs. sacrum motion, the effects of circular trotting and effect of using whole trials in place of individual stride calculations. Methods: Inertial sensors were attached to ...
The effect of treadmill speed and gradient on equine hindlimb muscle activity. Locomotion requires successful negotiation of different terrains, but we currently know little of how the musculoskeletal system adapts to cope with positive and negative slopes. Objective: To compare the effects of treadmill speed and gradient on equine hindlimb muscle mean electromyographic (EMG) intensity. Methods: Surface EMG recorded the activity of gluteus medius (GM), biceps femoris (BF), vastus lateralis (VL), gastrocnemius lateralis (GL) and extensor digitorum longus (EDL) in 6 horses at walk (1.4-1.6 m/s) and trot (2.6-3 m/s) on 3 different treadmill gradients (0, 10% and -10%). Sign...
Velocity-dependent changes of time, force and spatial parameters in Warmblood horses walking and trotting on a treadmill. Gait analysis parameters are sensitive to alterations in velocity. For comparison of nonspeed-matched data, the velocity dependency needs to be known. Objective: To describe the changes in gait pattern and determine the relationships between stride duration, vertical impulse, contact time and peak vertical force within a range of walking and trotting speeds. Methods: Thirty-eight nonlame Warmblood horses were subjected to an incremental speed test. The spans of speed were adjusted individually to each horse and ranged from 1.1-2.1 m/s at walk and from 2.5-5.8 m/s at trot. Time, force and spati...
The role of tendon stiffness in development of equine locomotion with age. The flexor tendons support the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) and distal interphalangeal (DIP) joints during stance phase and since tendon stiffness and strain changes with age, it is likely that kinematics are also age-dependent. Objective: Maximum MCP and DIP angles decrease in the young horse, plateau in the mature horse and increase towards senescence. Methods: The distal limbs of 57 walking horses age 3-212 months were filmed and digitised with an automated tracking system. Maximum MCP and DIP angles during stance phase were used to calculate strain in the superficial and deep digital flexor t...
The relationship between massage to the equine caudal hindlimb muscles and hindlimb protraction. Massage is widely used in physiotherapy, but there has been little previous research examining its effectiveness in increasing equine soft tissue length. Objective: To determine the effect of massage on equine hindlimb protraction. We hypothesised that massage to the caudal muscles of the equine hindlimb, specifically the superficial gluteal, semitendinosus, biceps femoris and semimembranosus muscles, can increase passive and active hindlimb protraction. Methods: The study used a crossover design in which 8 horses were randomly assigned to 2 groups of 4, A and B. Group A received massage for 3...
Preliminary report into the function of the shoulder using a novel imaging and motion capture approach. The function of the forelimb is fundamental to understanding both sound and pathological locomotion. The precise movements of the equine shoulder are hidden by layers of skin and muscle and hence the shoulder is normally modelled as a simple pivot during locomotion which assumes that any translational motion is negligible. Objective: To record and quantify the sliding motion of the scapula during locomotion, using a novel imaging technique. Methods: Scapula motion during locomotion in the horse was calculated by tracking the ripple of the shoulder blade's movement under an array of markers pla...
Inertial sensors for assessment of back movement in horses during locomotion over ground. Assessing back movement is an important part of clinical examination in the horse and objective assessment tools allow for evaluating success of treatment. Objective: Accuracy and consistency of inertial sensor measurements for quantification of back movement and movement symmetry during over ground locomotion were assessed; sensor measurements were compared to optical motion capture (mocap) and consistency of measurements focusing on movement symmetry was measured. Methods: Six nonlame horses were trotted in hand with synchronised mocap and inertial sensor data collection (landmarks: T6, T10,...
Quantification of equine sacral and iliac motion during gait: a comparison between motion capture with skin-mounted and bone-fixated sensors. Information regarding movement at the ilium and sacrum in nonlame horses during normal gait may assist in understanding the biomechanics of the equine sacroiliac joint. Objective: To determine the amount and direction of motion at the ilium and sacrum using 3D orientation sensors during walk and trot in sound Thoroughbreds. To compare results from sensors fixed to the skin with results from sensors fixed to bone-implanted pins. Methods: Three 3D wireless orientation sensors were mounted to the skin over the tuber sacrale (TS) and sacrum of 6 horses and motion at the ilium and sacrum was record...
Kinematic characteristics of hoof landing in jumping horses at elite level. Biomechanical events of the distal limb during the landing phase of a jump have been proposed to be risk factors for injury, indicating need for further characterisation of the landing and the hoof-surface interaction. This is essential also for valid testing of arena surfaces when simulating actual conditions. Objective: To investigate the hoof landing characteristics for different limbs of elite showjumping horses during the landing phase when jumping 1.30-1.50 m competition fences on 2 different arena surfaces. Methods: A single, fixed high speed camera (1000 frames/s) was aimed at landing ...
Saddle and leg forces during lateral movements in dressage. In the equestrian world it is assumed that riders use changes in weight distribution and leg forces as important instruments to give horses directions about speed and direction of movement. However, the changes of these forces have never been quantified. Objective: To investigate the distribution of normal forces (perpendicular to surface) underneath the saddle and of normal forces exerted by the rider's legs during lateral movements. Methods: Eleven riders performed 3 different exercises: riding straight ahead, shoulder-in and travers at trot. Three saddle force systems were used simultaneous...
Ground reaction force and kinematic analysis of limb loading on two different beach sand tracks in harness trotters. Although beach training is commonly used in horses, limb loading on beach sand has never been investigated. A dynamometric horseshoe (DHS) is well adapted for this purpose. Objective: To compare ground reaction force (GRF) and fetlock kinematics measured in harness trotters on 2 tracks of beach sand with different water content. Methods: Two linear sand tracks were compared: firm wet sand (FWS, 19% moisture) vs. deep wet sand (DWS, 13.5% moisture). Four French trotters (550 ± 22 kg) were used. Their right forelimb was equipped with a DHS and skin markers. Each track was tested 3 times at 7 m/...
Use of an implantable transducer to measure force in the superficial digital flexor tendon in horses at walk, trot and canter on a treadmill. Although the main cause of injury to the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) is assumed to be high intensity loading of the tendon, to date the forces exerted on the SDFT during cantering have never been measured. Objective: To measure the force exerted on the SDFT at walk, trot and canter on a treadmill. Methods: Arthroscopically implantable force probes (AIFP) were implanted in the SDFT of the left and right forelimbs of 8 Thoroughbred horses (480-565 kg). The output of the AIFP was calibrated using the SDFT force calculated by inverse dynamics and an in vitro model of the lower forelim...
The mathematical description of the body centre of mass 3D path in human and animal locomotion. Although the 3D trajectory of the body centre of mass during ambulation constitutes the 'locomotor signature' at different gaits and speeds for humans and other legged species, no quantitative method for its description has been proposed in the literature so far. By combining the mathematical discoveries of Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768-1830, analysis of periodic events) and of Jules Antoine Lissajous (1822-1880, parametric equation for closed loops) we designed a method simultaneously capturing the spatial and dynamical features of that 3D trajectory. The motion analysis of walking and r...
The difference in kinematics of horses walking, trotting and cantering on a flat and banked 10 m circle. Locomotion adaptation mechanisms have been observed in horses, but little information is available in relation to banked and nonbanked curve locomotion, which might be important to optimise training environments. Objective: To determine if adaptation mechanisms in horses existed when moving on a banked compared to a flat curve and whether adaptation was similar in different gaits. Methods: Eight infrared cameras were positioned on the outside of a 10 m lungeing circle and calibrated. Retroreflective markers were used to define left and right metacarpus (McIII) and proximal phalanges (P1), meta...
Inertial properties of equine limb segments. Quantifying the dynamics of limb movements requires knowledge of the mass distribution between and within limb segments. We measured segment masses, positions of segmental center of mass and moments of inertia of the fore and hind limb segments for 38 horses of different breeds and sizes. After disarticulation by dissections, segments were weighed and the position of the center of mass was determined by suspension. Moment of inertia was measured using a trifilar pendulum. We found that mass distribution does not change with size for animals under 600 kg and report ratios of segmental masses to...
Grip and limb force limits to turning performance in competition horses. Manoeuverability is a key requirement for successful terrestrial locomotion, especially on variable terrain, and is a deciding factor in predator-prey interaction. Compared with straight-line running, bend running requires additional leg force to generate centripetal acceleration. In humans, this results in a reduction in maximum speed during bend running and a published model assuming maximum limb force as a constraint accurately predicts how much a sprinter must slow down on a bend given his maximum straight-line speed. In contrast, greyhounds do not slow down or change stride parameters dur...
Quantifying show jumping horse rider expertise using IMUs. Horse rider ability has long been measured using horse performance, competition results and visual observation. Scientific methods of measuring rider ability on the flat are emerging such as measuring position angles and harmony of the horse-rider system. To date no research has quantified rider ability in show jumping. Kinematic analysis and motion sensors have been used in sports other than show jumping to measure the quality of motor control patterns in humans. The aim of this study was to quantify rider ability in show jumping using body-mounted IMUs. Preliminary results indicate that ther...
Kinematic analysis of equine masticatory movements: comparison before and after routine dental treatment. The objective of this study was to compare masticatory movements before and after dental treatment using kinematic analysis. The masticatory movements of 15 adult Warmblood horses with mild dental pathology chewing standardised hay were recorded on three consecutive days before and three times after (days 7, 21, 28) dental correction. The results of the leading mandibular tracking marker, located at the caudal edge of the inter-mandibular suture, were compared statistically. Reproducibility of measurements prior to dental treatment was excellent (P<0.05). Rostrocaudal mandibular motion was ...
The relationship between in vivo limb and in vitro tendon mechanics after injury: a potential novel clinical tool for monitoring tendon repair. Highly prevalent superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) injury results in compromised tendon function through fibrosis and high frequency of re-injury due to altered biomechanical function. This study investigated the consequences of SDF tendinopathy on limb mechanics in relation to the mechanical properties of injured tendon. Objective: To develop and validate a noninvasive in vivo assessment of tendon mechanics to investigate the effect of recent SDFT injury on limb stiffness index, providing an objective method to assess quality of healing. Objective: Limb stiffness index would reduce as ...
A pressure plate study on fore and hindlimb loading and the association with hoof contact area in sound ponies at the walk and trot. The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between fore- and hind-hoof contact area and limb loading. Data from a previous study on forelimb loading and symmetry were compared with data on hindlimb kinetics, and the fore- and hind-hoof contact area at the walk and trot was evaluated. Five sound ponies, selected for symmetrical feet, were walked and trotted over a pressure plate embedded in a custom-made runway. The hindlimb peak vertical force (PVF) and vertical impulse (VI) were found to be significantly lower than in the forelimb, whereas their high symmetry ratios (>95%) did n...
Comparative analyses of rider position according to skill levels during walk and trot in Jeju horse. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the rider position at walk and trot as a function of rider skill level by analyzing joint angles. Participants included three advanced riders and six beginners, and training was conducted for one hour, twice a week for 24 weeks. In the walk stage of the beginners' group, the elbows and shoulders sustained postures comparable to those of the advanced riders group; the trunk tilted forwards at first, but later it tilted slightly behind the vertical. The knee, ankle, and left-right angle kept stable postures after 12 weeks of training (p<.05). The fron...
Swing phase kinematic and kinetic response to weighting the hind pasterns. It is considered that specific exercises to strengthen limb musculature would be helpful. Objective: To describe swing phase kinematic and kinetic changes in the hindlimbs of trotting horses in response to the addition of leg weights to the hind pasterns. Methods: Six horses were prepared by placing reflective skin markers on the hindlimbs, the withers and fore hooves. Horses were evaluated at trot for 6 trials with and without leg weights (700 g) attached around the pasterns, with the 2 conditions applied in random order. The markers were tracked to determine peak heights of the flight arc of...
High speed field kinematics of foot contact in elite galloping horses in training. Mechanical characterisation of the high speed gallop has significant importance for animal welfare and basic biology. Kinematic parameters such as the velocity of each foot at contact can inform theories of why animals gallop, and supplant epidemiological investigation into the mechanisms of musculoskeletal injury. Objective: To determine the velocity at which the fore and hind hooves of elite galloping horses impact the surface. Methods: High speed videography was used to measure the horizontal and vertical velocity of the hoof immediately prior to impact, and the subsequent sink (vertical) a...
Finite element modelling of equestrian helmet impacts exposes the need to address rotational kinematics in future helmet designs. Jockey head injuries, especially concussions, are common in horse racing. Current helmets do help to reduce the severity and incidences of head injury, but the high concussion incidence rates suggest that there may be scope to improve the performance of equestrian helmets. Finite element simulations in ABAQUS/Explicit were used to model a realistic helmet model during standard helmeted rigid headform impacts and helmeted head model University College Dublin Brain Trauma Model (UCDBTM) impacts. Current helmet standards for impact determine helmet performance based solely on linear acceleration....
Kinematics of saddle and rider in high-level dressage horses performing collected walk on a treadmill. The kinematics of the saddle and rider have not been thoroughly described at the walk. Objective: To describe saddle and rider movements during collected walk in a group of high-level dressage horses and riders. Methods: Seven high-level dressage horses and riders were subjected to kinematic measurements while performing collected walk on a treadmill. Movements of the saddle and rider's pelvis, upper body and head were analysed in a rigid body model. Projection angles were determined for the rider's arms and legs, and the neck and trunk of the horse. Distances between selected markers were use...
Hindlimb response to tactile stimulation of the pastern and coronet. Lightweight tactile stimulators attached to the hind pasterns increase the height of the hind hoof flight arc but details of the induced changes in swing phase kinematics and kinetics have not been investigated. Objective: Stimulators on the hind pasterns are associated with increased hindlimb joint flexions and increased positive work performed by the hip and tarsal musculature. Methods: Nine nonlame horses trotted 4 times with and without 55 g tactile stimulators loosely attached around the hind pasterns. Height of the flight arc and peak flexion angles of the hindlimb joints were measured a...
Mechanical loading of the distal end of the third metacarpal bone in horses during walking and trotting. To assess the net mechanical load on the distal end of the third metacarpal bone in horses during walking and trotting. Methods: 3 Quarter Horses and 1 Thoroughbred. Methods: Surface strains measured on the left third metacarpal bone of the Thorough-bred were used with a subject-specific model to calculate loading (axial compression, bending, and torsion) of the structure during walking and trotting. Forelimb kinematics and ground reaction forces measured in the 3 Quarter Horses were used with a musculoskeletal model of the distal portion of the forelimb to determine loading of the distal end ...
