The musculoskeletal system in horses encompasses the bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints that facilitate movement and provide structural support. This system is essential for locomotion, athletic performance, and overall health in equine species. The equine skeleton consists of approximately 205 bones, which are connected by joints and supported by a network of muscles and connective tissues. Tendons connect muscles to bones, while ligaments link bones to other bones, contributing to joint stability. The musculoskeletal system is subject to various conditions, including injuries, degenerative diseases, and developmental disorders, which can impact a horse's mobility and performance. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, physiology, pathology, and treatment of musculoskeletal conditions in horses.
Bungărdean D, Pall E, Daradics Z, Popescu M, Tripon MA, Lupșan AF, Crecan CM, Morar IA, Nicolescu A, Bora FD, Marcus I.Musculoskeletal disorders are a major cause of lameness in horses, often necessitating innovative regenerative strategies to restore joint function and improve quality of life. This study investigated the effects of platelet-rich plasma (PRP), ozonized PRP, hyaluronic acid, paracetamol, and polyacrylamide hydrogel (NOLTREX) on the behavior of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) derived from equine synovial fluid. Synovial fluid samples were collected under strict cytological criteria to ensure viability, followed by in vitro expansion and phenotypic characterization of MSCs. Cultures were supplement...
Olijnyk JM, Hosgood G, Richardson J, Beggs C, McConnell E.Reliable assessment of foot conformation is essential for podiatric management in Miniature Horses and Ponies, yet reference ranges and the reliability of radiographic measurements remain poorly defined. Objective: This study quantified radiographic measurements of foot conformation in sound, skeletally mature Miniature Horses and Ponies and evaluated their agreement, reliability, and precision. Methods: Standardised lateromedial and dorsopalmar/plantarodorsal radiographs were obtained from 30 Miniature Horses and Ponies. Two observers took 60 measurements from 10 sets of projections on three ...
Hanousek K, O'Hara V, Riddell DO, Piercy RJ.In Thoroughbred horses, a highly prevalent short interspersed nuclear element (SINE) mutation in the myostatin gene (MSTN) promoter influences circulating myostatin concentration and is associated with muscle morphology, fracture risk and optimal race distance. Our prior data reveal that within horses there is substantial variation in serum myostatin concentration, particularly in MSTN heterozygotes and wild type horses but it was unclear whether such variation relates to within-horse differences or to environmental or temporal effects. Here we report the intra-horse consistency of circulating...
van Veggel ECS, Cokelaere SM, Vanderperren K, Selberg KT, Rasmussen J, Bergman HJ, Vernooij JCM, Hoogelander B.To report low-field standing MRI findings and, when available, postmortem findings of 25 thoracic limbs with degenerative joint disease of the distal interphalangeal joint (DIPJ) characterized by narrowing of the joint space suggestive of cartilage loss. Unassigned: Medical records from September 2015 to July 2022 were reviewed for clinical history, signalment, MRI, and postmortem findings. The study retrospectively analyzed cases in which lameness was linked to DIPJ joint space narrowing using a partially nested comparative design. Width was measured at 4 DIPJ sites, as well as a ratio to the...
Boado A, Pollard D, Dyson S.There are no studies that have investigated factors influencing the outcome of dressage horses with suspensory ligament (SL) branch injuries. The aim was to determine if age, breed, work level, injury severity, anatomical localisation of injury, number of injured branches, periligamentous fibrosis, persistence of power Doppler signal or coexistent osteoarthritis of a metacarpophalangeal (MCP) or metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joint influenced the prognosis of 70 dressage horses. Outcome was defined as good (return to pre-injury level of work or higher), poor (return to a lower level of work) or ret...
Micheau L, Audigié F, Moiroud C, Jacquet S.Disuse-induced bone loss during stall confinement and immobilization is a major concern in horses because it impairs recovery and increases susceptibility to further injury. Experimental models are needed to evaluate therapeutic options, but most available equine models rely on cast immobilization, which is technically demanding and may be associated with complications. This study aimed to assess a simpler and less restrictive model to induce a quantifiable decrease in bone density in horses. Six French Standardbred horses underwent eight weeks of stall confinement, with a wooden wedge fitted ...
St George L, Nankervis K, Walker V, Maddock C, Robinson A, Sinclair J, Hobbs SJ.Despite growing evidence on the adaptive movement patterns that horses adopt during water treadmill (WT) exercise, underlying adaptations in muscle activity remain uninvestigated. This feasibility study aimed to develop a method for the synchronous measurement of muscle activity and movement of horses during WT exercise. Combined surface electromyography (sEMG) (2000 Hz) from selected hindlimb (biceps femoris, gluteus medius, tensor fasciae latae) and epaxial (longissimus dorsi) muscles, and three-dimensional kinematic (200 Hz) data from the back and pelvis of one (n = 1) horse were collected ...
McPeek JL, Menarim B, Sponseller B, McClendon M, Adam EN, Adams AA, Slone S, Page AE.Subjective lameness evaluations are critical components of equine musculoskeletal health assessments. Objective approaches can supplement diagnosis and may be preferred for specific cases and scientific purposes. Objective: Evaluate agreements between subjective evaluation of two veterinarians and standard clinical interpretations from outputs of an AI-based smartphone application (Sleip; AI-SPA), the inertial measurement unit (IMU) system Equinosis Q Lameness Locator (LL), and the IMU system Equisym (ES). Methods: In vivo experiment. Methods: Twenty-five research horses (10-30 years) were e...
Góss GC, Mozzaquatro FD, Machado IRL, Gomes EM, Martins NR, Duarte CA.The collateral ligaments of the distal interphalangeal joint (CL-DIPJ) are important structures for athletic horses. Ligament injuries can cause lameness, but ultrasound imaging can detect such lesions, which usually present with changes in echogenicity and an increase in the cross-sectional area (CSA) of the ligament. Measurements of these structures vary among authors, which complicates the diagnosis. Thus, this study aimed to describe the ultrasound measurements (dorsopalmar diameter [DPD], lateromedial diameter [LMD], and CSA) of the CL-DIPJ in Argentine Polo horses. We measured the CL-DIP...
Purnama MTE, Fikri F, Çalışkan H, Wicaksono AP.Racehorses endure high physical demands, which often result in musculoskeletal pain, fatigue, and reduced performance. Although conventional therapies are effective, competition-related drug regulations restrict their use. Acupuncture, rooted in Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine, has gained interest as a non-pharmacological alternative for managing pain, enhancing recovery, and promoting overall welfare in equine athletes. This review aims to critically evaluate the current evidence on the efficacy of acupuncture in racehorses, focusing on musculoskeletal pain management, post-exercise r...
Rhodes AD, McCoy AM, Stewart MC, Gutierrez-Nibeyro SD.To evaluate postoperative racing performance of a population of Standardbred racehorses following arthroscopic removal of an osteochondrosis dissecans (OCD) lesion of the femoropatellar joint. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: A total of 45 client-owned Standardbred racehorses. Methods: OCD lesions were measured and graded using the length of the subchondral bone defect from preoperative radiographs. Postoperative racing results were obtained from the United States Trotting Association, and follow-up owner surveys were conducted. A control group of contemporaneous paternal siblings free o...
Morrice-West AV, Wong ASM, Hitchens PL, Whitton RC.Musculoskeletal injuries (MSI) in racehorses are not typically spontaneous events, but develop gradually through cumulative cycles of loading over time. Stride characteristics can now be recorded with wearable technology, providing opportunity to quantify the skeletal impact of galloping over time. We estimated bone fatigue accumulation based on speed (m/s) and number of strides from n = 3168 race starts by n = 405 Thoroughbreds commencing racing in Tasmania, Australia between 2011 and 2016. The percentage bone fatigue accumulated was divided by various time periods (career, active car...
Hellige M, Schröder C, Seehusen F, Rohn K, Geburek F.Computed tomographic myelography (CTM) is diagnostic for extradural spinal cord compression but knowledge about vertebral ratios from transverse images in flexion and normal position of unaffected horses is lacking. Objective: To compare the ratios of the cross-sectional areas (CSAs) of the spinal cord, the vertebral canal and of the contrast enhanced dural tube on transverse CTM images at C3-C4 in neutral and flexed positions in unaffected Warmbloods. Methods: CTM was performed in 13 neurologically unaffected Warmbloods in neutral and flexed cervical vertebral column positions. Ratios were ca...
McDonald S, Verheyen KLP, Chang YM, Allen SE.Race-related injuries in horse racing, especially those requiring extended recovery, are a welfare concern and threaten the sport's social licence. Previous studies predominantly report on fatalities; however, serious non-fatal musculoskeletal injuries often end horses' racing careers or have a high recurrence risk. No recent studies have described or quantified long-term injuries (LTIs) in racing Thoroughbreds, which is essential to inform targeted risk prevention strategies. Objective: To describe the types, frequencies and incidences of LTIs in British jump racing. Methods: Retrospective co...
Sabzpoosh M, Hoveizi E, Gooraninejad S.This study aimed to extract and isolate endometrial stromal cells from Arabian mares and investigate their growth and differentiation potential. Endometrial biopsies were obtained from three healthy 6-year-old Arabian mares using a standardized, minimally invasive protocol. The isolated cells were characterized using flow cytometry and differentiation analysis. Flow cytometry revealed mesenchymal markers CD90 (95.2%) and CD105 (97.4%) and hematopoietic markers CD34 (1.17%) and CD45 (0.339%). The cells exhibited differentiation potential into adipocytes, osteoblasts, and chondrocytes. The findi...
Papini L, de Preux M, Pauwels F, Missotten J, Van der Vekens E.(1) Background: Cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) is increasingly used in equine practice to diagnose musculoskeletal injuries, including fractures in the distal limb. However, limited detail in the thick cortical bone of the metacarpus/metatarsus hinders accurate diagnosis. In human medicine, the addition of aluminum filters (AF) enhanced image quality while reducing radiation exposure. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of AF on image quality in CBCT scans of equine distal limbs. (2) Methods: Adult equine cadaver limbs were scanned with a mobile CBCT unit using varying tube currents ...
Clark KF, Lemcke RA, Gasiorowski JC, Wagner B.Lyme arthritis, a well-documented subtype of arthritis in humans and dogs, is caused by Borrelia burgdorferi and spread primarily through ticks (Ixodes spp.). While Lyme disease in horses is known to cause a variety of clinical signs, its involvement in the development of equine arthritis is controversial. As climate change enables tick populations to expand, more horses could be exposed to B. burgdorferi; therefore, a greater understanding of how Lyme disease affects joints is critical to preserving soundness. Objective: To determine if systemic, naturally occurring Lyme disease had a discern...
Chapple AR, Daglish J, Stover SM, Slipchenko N, Phillips KL.Stress fracture is an important cause of mortality and morbidity in racing Thoroughbreds. Nuclear scintigraphy is the imaging modality of choice for investigating unlocalised stress-related bone remodelling in horses. Stress fractures of the caudal lumbar vertebral column have been previously described in both racing Quarter horses and racing Thoroughbreds post-mortem. There is a lack of literature describing the imaging appearance of vertebral stress fractures in racehorses ante-mortem. Objective: To describe: (1) ante-mortem scintigraphic appearance of presumed thoracolumbar vertebral stress...
Jonkhart M, Serra Bragança FM, Smit IH, Brommer H, Suskens JJM.Flexion tests are commonly used in equine locomotion examinations to identify underlying locomotor issues, yet their neuromuscular effects remain poorly understood. Response variability raises concerns about their clinical value in lameness assessments and pre-purchase evaluations. Objective: Primarily, to investigate the effect of full-limb flexion tests on static (flexed position) and dynamic (subsequent trot-up) muscle activity. Secondarily, to assess their effect on locomotion asymmetry during trotting. Methods: In vivo experiments. Methods: Sixteen warmblood horses were randomly assigned ...
Honnas DH, Fiske-Jackson AR, Fulkerson CV, Wilhite DR.An injury of a tendon or ligament of the equine foot is frequently a cause of lameness. The optimal radiographic projections delineating the entheses of five commonly injured tendons and ligaments of the foot should be described. Methods: The entheses of the collateral ligaments of the distal interphalangeal joint, the collateral sesamoidean ligaments of the navicular bone, the deep digital flexor tendon, the common digital extensor tendon and the distal sesamoidean impar ligament were isolated from a thoracic foot of three cadavers. Three standard radiographic projections (60-degree, dorsopro...
van den Broek M, Chan ZYS, De Bruyne C, Garcia-Alamo K, Skotarek Loch S, Pfau T.Increased risk of musculoskeletal injury in galloping racehorses has been linked to decreased stride length and reduced speed over consecutive races prior to the injury. As racetrack curvature influences horses' maximal speed, we hypothesized it also affects stride parameters. During training sessions, twenty-eight wagon-pulling Thoroughbred Chuckwagon horses were equipped with Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) loggers, allowing for identification of speed, stride length (SL) and stride frequency (SF), and average speed, SL and SF were calculated for consecutive 100 m sections. Effects...
Marković L, Vićić I, Lazarević Macanović M, Francuski Andrić J, Kovačević Filipović M, Radaković M.Working horses often develop distinct patterns of joint degeneration, yet research in this population remains limited. This study aimed to characterize degenerative changes in the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) and metatarsophalangeal (MTP) joints of Serbian Mountain Horses using computed tomography (CT) and to explore their associations with synovial fluid (SF) biomarkers. A cross-sectional analysis was conducted on 32 MCP/MTP joints from eight clinically sound horses. Postmortem, joints underwent CT imaging, and SF samples were analyzed for viscosity, protein content, total nucleated cell count (...
De Zani D, Rabbogliatti V, Rabba S, Auletta L, Longo M, Zani DD.Damage to the osteochondral unit is a common cause of lameness in horses. Published descriptions of MRI findings of osteochondral unit and subchondral damage are currently lacking, and only a few reports describe outcomes in sport horses. The aims of this case series retrospective study were to describe different MRI patterns of osteochondral/subchondral pathology in the fetlock joint using low-field MRI and to provide outcome information. A total of 35 sport horses were included. Data regarding detailed clinical history, treatment and outcome were evaluated. MRI identified a total of 39 bone ...
Malekipour F, Whitton RC, Muir P, Lee PV.Stress fractures are common in racehorses, with the metacarpophalangeal (MCP) joint being the most frequently affected site as it is subjected to high-magnitude and high-rate cyclic loads during training and racing. These loads lead to repeated compressive stresses, resulting in subchondral bone (SCB) sclerosis, fatigue microcracks, and matrix damage that can progress to parasagittal fractures or palmar osteochondral disease (POD). The present study developed joint-specific 3D FE models and slice-based FE models using standing CT images for three trained racehorses, each presenting distinct SC...
Graide H, Duysens J, Frank T, Mouithys-Mickalad A, Niesten A, Sandersen C, Ceusters J, Serteyn D.Musculoskeletal pathologies present challenges in athletic horses, often leading to functional impairment. The slow or limited regenerative capacity of bone, joint, and tendon/ligament injuries, coupled with the limitations of conventional treatments, highlights the need for innovative therapies such as ortho-biologics and mesenchymal stem/stroma cells. Traditional 2D cell culture systems with fetal bovine serum (FBS) fail to replicate the complexity of the in vivo environment, whereas 3D cultures more accurately mimic native tissue architecture and cell-cell interactions. This study describes...
Sohn Y, An SJ, Forbes E, Yoon J, Kim BS, Ryu SH, Lee I.Osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) is a developmental orthopedic condition in young horses. Exercise and management affect OCD development, but the impact of exercise patterns during the 6-12 months growth period remains unclear. This study examined the association between OCD lesions in Thoroughbred foals and irregular exercise patterns. Forty foals wore halter-mounted Global Positioning System devices that recorded velocity every five seconds during turnout. Foals were routinely turned out for approximately 13 h daily, except on rainy days. Radiographs were taken at six and twelve months of a...
Hargitaiova K, Maleas G.To describe outcomes following high-metacarpal deep digital flexor tenotomy (DDFT) combined with Steward clog application in horses and ponies with refractory chronic laminitis. Methods: Retrospective observational study. Methods: Client-owned horses and ponies (7 horses, 8 ponies) with severe refractory laminitis. Methods: Medical records (2018-2019) were reviewed. All underwent standing high-metacarpal DDFT tenotomy proximal to the accessory ligament (AL-DDFT) junction, followed by customized Steward clogs application. Preoperative assessment included radiography and venography. Postoperativ...
Sellke L, Ludewig E, Handschuh S, Witter K.In a previous study on hoof biometry, we found that mathematical correction of measuring results from radiographs did not lead to complete correspondence to computed tomography (CT) results. The present study investigates this finding by comparing 13 measures of six cadaveric equine digits collected with the following workflows: radiographs with 1 and 2 m focus-object distance (FOD) (Xray 1 m/2 m), computed tomography images in planes defined based on anatomical landmarks (CTw), simulated radiographs based on the tomography dataset (virtual 120-mm slabs, Xray Sim) and measurements based ...
Leibeck R, Lehman J, Birmingham S.Whole-body vibrational therapy (WBV) is well-studied in people, but there is a paucity of research regarding its effect on horses. It is suggested that the use of WBV in horses increases performance, aids in recovery, and stimulates nerves, bones, and muscles in ways that normal exercise does not. Objective: The purpose of this pilot study was to determine if frequent WBV therapy sessions affect mechanical nociceptive thresholds based on pressure algometry in horses without clinical signs of lameness or back pain. Methods: The mechanical nociceptive thresholds (MNTs) were measured for 5 horses...
Gmel AI, Haraldsdóttir EH, Rosa TV, Lamas LP, Neuditschko M, Weishaupt MA.Europe has many horse breeds differing in conformation, gaits and genetics due to diverging breeding goals. Research studies comparing objective gait parameters between different horse breeds are limited and date back a decade. Objective: In this study, objective gait parameters were measured in three European breeds, namely Lusitanos (LUS; n = 52), Franches-Montagnes (FM; n = 311) and Swiss Warmblood (WB; n = 40) using an inertial measurement system (sensors at poll, withers, pelvis and all four canon bones) at walk and trot. Results: At walk and trot, LUS moved significantly slower than WB a...
