The musculoskeletal system in horses encompasses the bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints that facilitate movement and provide structural support. This system is essential for locomotion, athletic performance, and overall health in equine species. The equine skeleton consists of approximately 205 bones, which are connected by joints and supported by a network of muscles and connective tissues. Tendons connect muscles to bones, while ligaments link bones to other bones, contributing to joint stability. The musculoskeletal system is subject to various conditions, including injuries, degenerative diseases, and developmental disorders, which can impact a horse's mobility and performance. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, physiology, pathology, and treatment of musculoskeletal conditions in horses.
Science (New York, N.Y.)September 21, 1962
Volume 137, Issue 3534 979-980 doi: 10.1126/science.137.3534.979
STEINBERG S, BOTELHO S.Congenital myotonia, similar to that which has been reported in humans and in goats, is here reported for the first time in another species. Evidence is given to show (i) that the myotonic phenomenon is present despite complete block of neuromuscular transmission; (ii) prior to injection of curare, synchronous activity of muscle fibers may result not only from ephaptic stimulation of neighboring fibers but also from reflex firing; and (iii) water deprivation does not relieve the myotonia.
Giessen EJM, Stas EKL, Grinwis GCM, Veraa S.A 3-month-old Friesian colt presented with severe, progressive distal limb lameness in two limbs. Radiographic and postmortem full-body CT imaging revealed severe articular deforming osteolysis and osteoproliferation at the dorsodistal navicular bone margin and the adjacent distal phalanx proximo-palmar/proximo-plantar margin in two limbs, with the remainder of the distal interphalangeal joint being unaffected. Multiple other joints showed small osteolytic subchondral defects. Postmortem histopathological examination confirmed focal joint disease of both distal interphalangeal joints, without ...
Amari M, Brioschi FA, Auletta L, Ravasio G.Radiofrequency ablation (RFA) and pulsed radiofrequency (PRF) are non-pharmacological techniques employed in humans for chronic pain, but their veterinary application is unexplored. This pilot study evaluated clinical effects of RFA and PRF in twenty-four horses with chronic distal forelimb lameness. Ultrasound-guided RFA (N = 8; 60-90 °C, 2-8 min) or PRF (N = 16; 42 °C; 12 min) was applied to palmar digital nerves. Lameness was scored (American Association of Equine Practitioners scale) at baseline and monthly for six months (T1-T6). At T2, partial- and non-responders in both groups receive...
Tranquille C, Nankervis K, Tacey J, Hopkins E, Deckers I, Walker V, MacKechnie-Guire R, Newton R, Murray R.Water treadmill (WT) exercise has become a popular tool for equine training and rehabilitation. However, few studies describe the long-term effects of WT exercise in low water on muscle development (MD). This study's objectives were to compare MD changes over a 40-week period in sport horses that regularly used WT in low water within training (Group WTH, = 55) and a control group that did not (control, = 28). Subjective MD assessments were undertaken using an adaptation of a previously published method at weeks 0, 20 and 40. For Group WTH, MD significantly increased in the neck, pelvis and h...
Dörner C, Lagos N, Oyaneder L, Menarim BC, Ramírez-Toloza G.Osteoarthritis (OA) is an inflammatory joint disease and the leading cause of musculoskeletal disability affecting human and veterinary patients. New therapeutics halting inflammation while preserving joint homeostasis remain a critical need. Voltage-gated sodium (NaV) channels regulate the pro-inflammatory response of macrophages in the synovium, the central driver of joint homeostasis. Neosaxitoxin (NeoSTX) is a phycotoxin that blocks NaV channels, conferring a unique potential to regulate joint inflammation. This study evaluated the safety of intra-articular administration of NeoSTX in hors...
Gutierrez SO, Garcia-Lopez JM, Chope KB, Levine DG, Ortved K, Brown KA.To describe the clinical and ultrasonographic findings in horses with desmopathy of the abaxial palmar/plantar ligament (APL) of the proximal interphalangeal joint and the prevalence of concurrent musculoskeletal injuries in the pastern and foot. Unassigned: Horses presenting to New Bolton Center between March 2017 and November 2022 with an age ranging from 5 to 20 years that underwent lameness evaluation in which lameness was localized to the distal limb and had an ultrasonographic diagnosis of APL desmopathy. Unassigned: Horses included were those that (1) presented for a lameness examinatio...
Aarts RM, Siegers EW, Serra Braganca FM, van Weeren PR.The need for comprehensive equine welfare assessments has become particularly evident amid ongoing debates about the social licence to operate in equestrian sports. During exercise, multiple physiological systems, principally the cardiovascular, respiratory, muscular, thermoregulatory, endocrine, and locomotory systems, undergo complex adaptations. To monitor and determine equine welfare, an approach that focuses on the quantitative monitoring of both physiological and psychological parameters to determine and understand the impact of equestrian sports on horses is essential. Existing and emer...
Caure S, Miljak K, Dendaw P, Thesée L, Villedey E, Malinvaud A, Cousty M, Prié V, Horan K, Weller R.Effects of ground surface and hoof angles on equine cervical and thoracolumbosacral kinematics are poorly understood. However, the equine cervical and thoracolumbosacral areas present frequent lesions and he management of factors that might improve treatment and rehabilitation outcomes, such as ground surface and hoof angles, requires more investigation. Objective: Our objectives were to determine the influence of ground surface (asphalt versus sand) and a 3 degrees hind toe or heel elevation on cervical and thoracolumbosacral kinematics during walking and trotting. Methods: Six saddle horses ...
Marques GF, Moorman VJ, Ellis KL, Perlini M, Edwards VL.To describe the long-term outcome of a horse that underwent a standing, ultrasound-guided, minimally invasive, biceps brachii tenotomy. Methods: Case report. Methods: A 17-year-old Tennessee Walking Horse gelding. Methods: The horse had a chronic, severe, lameness localized to the left shoulder region. Diagnostic imaging revealed fractures of the intermediate and lesser tubercles of the left humerus, biceps brachii (BB) tendinopathy, and bicipital bursitis. Conservative management was attempted, but lack of improvement prompted surgical intervention. An ultrasound-guided, minimally invasive, B...
Marlin D, Randell O, Mayhew E, Blake R.The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of girth design and girth tension; six horses regularly ridden were used. Each horse underwent four experimental sessions in an unbalanced Latin-square design with two girth tensions (8 kg or 16 kg) and two girth designs (straight girth (S) or anatomical girth (A)). Pressure between the saddle and the horse was measured at 100 Hz with a pressure mat (0.5 sensels per cm). Notably, 2D limb kinematics were determined from anatomical markers placed on the fore and hindlimbs. Video was collected at 240 fps. There was no significant effect of girth...
Freeman KD, Adams MN, Salinger AE, White NA, Barrett JG.Suspensory desmopathy is a frequently documented cause of lameness in performance horses; proximal suspensory desmopathy is the most frequent site of injury in dressage horses [...].
Mousquer MA, Paz CFR, Rafael LA, Wendt CG, Curcio BR, Souza RP, Santos IPOD, da Silva RB, Müller V, Nogueira CEW.Obesity is common in some horse breeds, raising concerns about health and performance. Criollo horses in morphological events often undergo intensive management promoting early adiposity. Objective: This study aimed (1) to assess morphometric traits, metabolic profile, hoof morphology, and tarsal joint alterations in Criollo horses participating in morphological trials; (2) to evaluate sex-related differences; and (3) the associations between morphometric measurements, hoof morphology, and tarsal osteoarthritis grades. Methods: Fifty-five horses (30 mares, 25 stallions) were evaluated for body...
Mc Sweeney D, Wang Y, Palmer SE, Holmströem M, Donohue KD, Farnsworth KD, Sanz MG, Lambert DH, Bayly WM.To determine whether screening of racing Thoroughbreds with accelerometer-based inertial measurement unit sensors and a specifically trained algorithm identified horses most at risk for fatal musculoskeletal injury (FMI) and whether age, gender, race distance, and track surface were associated with increased risk. Unassigned: Stride data from 28,481 races by 11,834 Thoroughbreds from July 25, 2021, until May 4, 2024, were assigned an algorithm-based risk score from 1 to 6 (6 = greatest risk). Logistic regression models examined the association between incidence of fatal injuries and risk score...
Samol MA, Barrett MF, Frisbie DD.Significant distal interphalangeal joint (DIPJ) pathology, particularly affecting soft tissue and articular cartilage, is often not identifiable on radiographs but can be accompanied by joint capsule enthesopathy on the middle phalanx (P2), which can be readily identified. Objective: To explore frequency and correlations between DIPJ capsule enthesopathy identified on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and radiographs and DIPJ articular cartilage abnormalities and other concurrent soft tissue or osseous pathology within the foot found on MRI. Methods: Retrospective descriptive case series. Metho...
Pilati N, Pressanto MC, Palumbo Piccionello A, De Angelis Corvi F, Beccati F.The term overriding spinous processes (ORSPs), commonly known as "kissing spine syndrome," refers to a skeletal abnormality in horses that is characterized by the narrowing (<4 mm) of the interspinous space and touching or overlapping of the spinous processes (SPs). This condition primarily affects the mid- and caudal thoracic vertebrae; however, ORSP can also affect the lumbar SPs. In the veterinary community, kissing spine is widely recognized as a common condition in sport horses, as it is often associated with chronic back pain and contributes to poor performance. Despite its significant c...
Allen TS, Johnson S.The physical stresses on equine athletes are unique and differ across various disciplines. Recognizing these differences is essential for early detection of injuries and effective management of the competition horse's health. Equine sports medicine involves specific challenges and risks that can be reduced through proper care, careful attention to technique, and a deep understanding of the demands of each sport. Proper training, regular monitoring, and sport-specific expertise are crucial in preventing injuries and ensuring optimal performance. By focusing on these aspects, veterinarians and t...
Nelson B.Complications of equine musculoskeletal procedures and surgery are an inevitable occurrence. This article summarizes complications principally encountered by primary equine veterinarians who perform and manage musculoskeletal procedures and surgeries. Topics discussed include complications of musculoskeletal diagnostic procedures, angular/flexural limb deformities, and muscle, tendon, and ligament surgery; surgery of the foot, orthopedic and arthroscopic surgery, and cast management. Each section lists complications encountered and includes diagnostic and treatment considerations. Awareness of...
Delvescovo B, Bouton J.This issue focuses on the potential complications caused by prolonged recumbency in horses. It discusses how managing a recumbent horse involves treating the primary illness while also preventing and addressing secondary issues that can arise from recumbency itself. The authors explore the underlying pathophysiology of these complications, along with strategies for prevention and treatment. By understanding these aspects, veterinarians can improve care and outcomes for horses that are immobilized for extended periods. The issue provides insights into the most common complications and emphasize...
Tommasa SD, Raspe S, Farí G, Imperante A, Brehm W.Tendon and ligament injuries in equine athletes pose significant challenges, often leading to prolonged recovery, reduced performance, and increased risk of reinjury. Current treatment strategies, including conservative and surgical approaches, have shown limited success in fully restoring tendon integrity. Autologous blood derivatives, such as autologous conditioned serum (ACS), have emerged as potential regenerative therapies. However, the clinical efficacy of ACS in the treatment of equine tendinopathies remains under investigation. Unassigned: This study aimed to compare the clinical outco...
Melly V, Ortved KF, Stewart HL, Stefanovski D, Richardson DW, Bubeck KA, Hogan PM, García-López JM.To present fracture cases selected for plate fixation (PF), describe surgical techniques and assess their association with postoperative complications and return-to-work outcomes in horses undergoing PF for small metacarpal/metatarsal (SMCT) fractures. Methods: Multicenter retrospective study. Methods: A total of 27 horses. Methods: Horses treated with PF of a SMCT fracture between 2008 and 2023 across three hospitals were included. Medical records and imaging were reviewed. Long-term outcomes were established by readmission to the hospital, telephone interviews, and/or race records. Univariab...
Hartl B, Strohmayer C, Vali Y, Lyrakis M, Kneissl SM.Horses with hyoid bone disease may present with clinical symptoms such as exercise intolerance, resistance to ridden work, anorexia, or headshaking. This study aims to describe the computed tomographic (CT) signs and prevalence of hyoid disease and to evaluate their association with other CT changes of the head. Unassigned: In this study, four investigators conducted a retrospective analysis of their findings after reviewing the medical records of 200 horses that had undergone CT scans between 2009 and 2019. A total of 32 parameters were analyzed, and associations were evaluated between those ...
Lewczuk D, Wypchło M, Hecold M, Buczkowska R, Korwin-Kossakowska A.Finding the causative mutations for musculoskeletal system development and health status is of a higher priority for all sport horse breeders' associations. Of the regulating proteins involved in animal ossification, 15 gene polymorphisms were chosen to be identified as connected with the nine fetlock and 14 hock bone structures measurements of 198 horses. All measurements were taken using X-rays of the limbs, which were available at the beginning and end of the horse training. The analysis of variance (GLM, SAS program) was performed taking into account identified training and horse-connected...
Marcatili M, Kalinovskiy A, Christoph L.To describe the additional information provided by computed tomography (CT) in planning and assisting repair of comminuted fractures of the middle phalanx (MP) in Warmblood horses. Methods: Case series. Methods: Six adult Warmblood horses. Methods: The case records of horses undergoing CT examination prior to internal fixation of comminuted MP fractures were reviewed. All horses underwent radiographic and preoperative CT examination. A standardized fast protocol (SFP) to assess CT images was used. Surgical repair consisted of fracture repair and proximal interphalangeal joint arthrodesis using...
Memarian P, Basso G, Rigo M, Falomo ME, Isola M.Patellar luxation is a rare orthopedic condition in horses, with congenital lateral patellar luxation being the most frequently reported form. A few sporadic reports have described surgical options for addressing equine patellar luxation. This report details the clinical presentation of a 2-month-old Italian Trotter foal diagnosed with bilateral lateral patellar luxation. Staged surgical correction of both stifles was performed, including block recession trochleoplasty combined with the application of polypropylene mesh for reinforcing medial imbrication sutures. Intra- and post-operative eval...
Shaw KA, Brounts SH.To evaluate the effect of heel elevation on measurement of stiffness gradients by means of acoustoelastography in the digital flexor tendons of clinically normal horses. Unassigned: 15 clinically normal horses. Unassigned: For each horse, stiffness gradient index (SGI) for superficial digital flexor tendons (SDFT) and deep digital flexor tendons (DDFT) were evaluated in both forelimbs at 0, 4 and 8 degrees of heel elevation. Acoustoelastography (AEG) was used for data acquisition at three sites, approximately 6, 12, and 18 cm distal to the accessory carpal bone in the metacarpal region. Lif...
Beck C, Hitchens PL, Muir P, Whitton RC.Computed tomography (CT) is increasingly used for metacarpo/tarsophalangeal or fetlock joint (MC/TPJ) evaluation in Thoroughbred racehorses. CT features and lesion prevalence in competing Thoroughbreds are unknown. Objective: To identify standing CT features within the MC/TPJ of elite Thoroughbred staying racehorses. Methods: Retrospective cohort study. Methods: Computed tomography scans of the MC/TPJ were performed as part of pre-race screening for fracture risk and graded for CT features. Descriptive statistics and univariable logistic regression models were generated to investigate associat...
Linde P, Kurihara J, Chow L, Williams ZJ, Hendrickson D, Bass L, Dow S, Pezzanite LM.Innate immune responses within the joint are now known to play a key role in osteoarthritis (OA) pathogenesis. However, comparatively little is known regarding the role of adaptive immune responses in OA, and whether they may be important for initiating and sustaining progressive low-level joint inflammation. Therefore, we evaluated spontaneous osteoarthritis in horses to investigate whether antibodies recognizing live joint cells (chondrocytes, synoviocytes) were present in blood or synovial fluid, and to identify possible cellular target antigens. We found that horses with advanced OA had an...
Skelton G, Wulster-Bills K, Ciamillo S, Anishchenko S, van Eps A.To characterize healthy foot perfusion patterns under static weight-bearing load using 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose (18F-FDG) PET. Unassigned: In 8 healthy adult light-breed horses (from May 2021 through September 2024), 18F-FDG was injected while horses stood continuously weight-bearing (CWB) for a 20-minute scan period. A repeat scan was then performed after 20 minutes of ambulation. On a separate occasion, scans were performed with ambulation allowed between injection and scanning (Amb_Control). 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose uptake was quantified via metabolic volume and standardized uptake values for c...
Hammack SM, Moshage SG, Kersh ME, McCoy AM.To quantify circulating levels of myokines with a known role in bone remodeling (receptor activator of nuclear factor κ B ligand [RANK-L], matrix metalloproteinase 2 [MMP-2], and irisin) in foals in response to exercise and over the first year of life. Unassigned: 12 foals were enrolled in the study; 6 underwent an 8-week exercise program, and 6 were nonexercised controls. Blood samples were collected between 2 and 11 months of age. Receptor activator of nuclear factor κ B ligand, MMP-2, and irisin were quantified using equine-specific ELISAs. Unassigned: RANK-L, MMP-2, and irisin did not ch...
Micheau L, Jacquet-Guibon S, Tallaj A, Bertoni L, Denoix JM, Coudry V.To describe the type and distribution of carpal joint lesions causing lameness in show jumping horses and describe their 1-year performance outcomes. Unassigned: 15 show jumping horses (median age, 9 years; IQR, 8 to 11 years) of 3 different breeds, mostly Selle Français, evaluated at a referral center between 2013 and 2023. The inclusion criterion was forelimb lameness localized to the carpus, confirmed by perineural or IA analgesia and/or increased radiopharmaceutical uptake on scintigraphy. Horses with limb conformation abnormalities, a history of trauma, or extra-articular soft tissue les...
Saitua A, Pérez-Umbría J, García-Álamo K, Muñoz A.Dynamic mobilization exercises (DME) are an effective strategy to prevent musculoskeletal injuries and promote back health in sport horses. Previous studies focused mainly on multifidus muscle cross-sectional area, with limited data on locomotion and adaptation timing. This study evaluated locomotor changes using accelerometry, over 8 weeks of DME application in 14 sedentary horses: a DME group ( = 8) performing 10 different DME (3 neck flexions, 1 neck extension and 3 lateral bending exercises to each side), 5 repetitions of each DME per session, 3 sessions/week, and a control group ( = 6), t...
