The musculoskeletal system in horses encompasses the bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints that facilitate movement and provide structural support. This system is essential for locomotion, athletic performance, and overall health in equine species. The equine skeleton consists of approximately 205 bones, which are connected by joints and supported by a network of muscles and connective tissues. Tendons connect muscles to bones, while ligaments link bones to other bones, contributing to joint stability. The musculoskeletal system is subject to various conditions, including injuries, degenerative diseases, and developmental disorders, which can impact a horse's mobility and performance. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, physiology, pathology, and treatment of musculoskeletal conditions in horses.
Moleman M, van Heel MC, van Weeren PR, Back W.There is little insight into the effects of routine farriery on the internal structures of the distal limb in sound horses. Objective: To measure the effect of change in hoof conformation during a shoeing interval on the moments about the proximal and distal interphalangeal joints (PIPJ, DIPJ) and to determine whether and how the horse compensates for this change in hoof conformation. Methods: Both front feet of 9 sound Warmblood horses were measured while standing on a pressure-force measuring system and radiographed in a lateromedial direction shortly after shoeing and 8 weeks later. From th...
Wilsher S, Allen WR, Wood JL.The low productivity associated with training and racing of young Thoroughbreds (TBs) in the UK due to athletic inability, injury and disease requires further study. Objective: To identify the time points and causes of losses during growth and training phases of a cohort of 1022 TB foals born in 1999 up to the end of their third year. Methods: Movement and fate of 1022 Thoroughbred foals conceived in 1998 and born live in 1999 were monitored from birth to age 3 years. Those (n = 562) that entered training age 2 and/or 3 years with one of 161 registered trainers in Britain or Ireland in 2001/2 ...
Steel CM, Hopper BJ, Richardson JL, Alexander GR, Robertson ID.Lameness related to the middle carpal joint (MCJ) occurs in up to 30% of young Standardbred horses in race training and the incidence increase with radiographic severity of third carpal bone (C3) sclerosis on DPr-DDIO (skyline) view of the carpus. Factors predisposing horses to carpal injury have not been well investigated. Objective: To determine the importance of MCJ lameness as a cause of wastage in young Standardbred racehorses, stage of training at which it occurs and predisposing factors, and to describe clinical findings and diagnosis. Methods: Standardbred horses (n = 114) entering the...
Chateau H, Degueurce C, Denoix JM.Comprehensive understanding of the 3-dimensional (3D) kinematics of the distal forelimb and precise knowledge of alterations induced by dorsopalmar foot imbalance remains incomplete because in vivo studies performed with skin markers do not measure the actual movements of the 3 digital joints. Objective: To quantify the effects of 6 degree heel or toe wedges on the 3D movements of the 4 distal segments of the forelimb in horses trotting on a treadmill. Methods: Three healthy horses were equipped with ultrasonic markers fixed surgically to the 4 distal segments of the left forelimb. The 3D move...
Soffler C, Hermanson JW.We studied the forelimb interosseus muscle in horses, Equus caballus, to determine the muscular properties inherent in its function. Some authors have speculated that the equine interosseus contains muscle fibers at birth only to undergo loss of these fibers through postnatal ontogeny. We describe the muscle fibers in eight interosseus specimens from adult horses. These fibers were studied histochemically using myosin ATPase studies and immunocytochemically using several antibodies directed against type I and type II myosin heavy chain antibodies. We determined that 95% of the fibers were type...
Lischer ChJ, Bischofberger AS, Fürst A, Lang J, Ueltschi G.Lameness in horses due to pain originating from the proximal metacarpal/metatarsal region remains a diagnostic challenge. In cases of obvious lameness the pain can be localised to this region by diagnostic anaesthesia. Because a variety of disorders can cause lameness in this region different imaging modalities including radiography, ultrasonography and scintigraphy should be used to arrive at an accurate diagnosis. Even though a precise anatomic-pathologic diagnosis can still be an enigma, because not only bone and joints, but also soft tissue structures including the proximal suspensory liga...
Cogger N, Perkins N, Hodgson DR, Reid SW, Evans DL.Musculoskeletal injuries (MSI) in racehorses have been identified as the most common cause of lost training days and weeks spent resting at pasture. Several training-, track- and horse-related risk factors have been identified. However, there is no clear understanding of the inter-relationship between these factors. The aim of this longitudinal cohort study was to investigate risk factors for MSI in 2-year-old Thoroughbred racehorses. Australian Thoroughbred trainers were convenience sampled and enrolled in a 27-month longitudinal cohort study. The study population consisted of all 2-year-old ...
Verheyen KL, Newton JR, Price JS, Wood JL.Few epidemiological studies have investigated risk factors for musculoskeletal injury occurring in Thoroughbred racehorses during training, although it is the major cause of wastage in the racing industry. We recently conducted a large-scale epidemiological study to estimate the incidence of fracture in racehorses in training in the UK and to identify associated risk factors. Thirteen racehorse trainers provided data on horses in their care, with daily recording of training information and provision of details on any fractures incurred. Data were collected for 2 years, including two consecutiv...
Parkin TD, Clegg PD, French NP, Proudman CJ, Riggs CM, Singer ER, Webbon PM, Morgan KL.The characteristics of, and pre-existing pathology associated with 75 cases of fatal lateral condylar fracture sustained by Thoroughbreds while racing in the UK were described. Cases were identified from 220 cases of fatal distal limb fracture submitted as part of studies designed to identify risk factors for all fatal distal limb fractures. Fractures were most common in hurdle races and affected the right forelimb twice as often as the left forelimb. Fracture dimensions were similar to previous reports, however there was a much greater prevalence of articular and diaphyseal comminution and of...
Bullimore SR, Burn JF.It is possible for animals of very different sizes to use the same patterns of locomotion, i.e. to move in a ;dynamically similar fashion'. This will only occur, however, if relevant biomechanical parameters scale with size in such a way that they compensate for the effects of size differences. Here we apply this principle to understanding the effects of size on locomotion within a species: the domestic horse. We predict that, without any factor to compensate for size differences, detectable deviations from dynamically similar locomotion would occur over the size range present in adult horses....
Holm KR, Wennerstrand J, Lagerquist U, Eksell R, Johnston C.Diagnostic infiltration of local anaesthetic solution is commonly used in cases of equine back pain. Evaluation is subjective and it is not known how local analgesia of the back affects horses without clinical signs of back pain. Objective: To evaluate the effect of infiltration of local anaesthetics on the movement of the back in horses without clinical signs of back pain, and to evaluate the usefulness of kinematic studies as an objective and quantitative tool in evaluating local analgesia in clinical practice. Methods: The kinematics of the back in 10 clinically sound horses were measured o...
Haussler KK, Erb HN.An objective measure of neck, back and croup pain is needed in horses with musculoskeletal injuries, vague upper limb lameness or poor performance. Objective: To establish mechanical nociceptive thresholds (MNTs) within the axial skeleton and evaluate the effects of subject status and ridden exercise. Methods: Thirty-six mature horses (10 nonridden; 26 actively ridden) were used to assess MNTs evoked by a pressure algometer (PA) with a 1 cm2 rubber plunger tip at 62 midline and bilaterally symmetrical anatomical landmarks along the axial skeleton. Pressure was applied at a uniform rate of appl...
Haussler KK, Erb HN.Pressure algometry (PA) is a potential modality for objectively measuring mechanical nociceptive thresholds (MNTs) in horses. Its ability to differentiate musculoskeletal pain sites from nonpain sites is unknown and must be assessed prior to its clinical application. Objective: To assess the ability of PA to detect induced musculoskeletal pain. Methods: Twenty clinically normal mature horses (2 groups of 10 horses, over 2 years) were used to measure MNTs before and after implantation and removal of 2 fixation half-pins in the dorsal spinous processes of 2 adjacent vertebrae. To assess hyperalg...
Rossignol F, Perrin R, Desbrosse F, Elie C.To compare in vitro the load necessary for a partial and complete rupture of the muscular process arytenoid cartilage when a suture prosthesis is positioned by a bone trocar versus a trocar point needle and to compare failure mode. Methods: Experimental using cadaver specimens. Methods: Larynges from 18 Thoroughbred race horses, aged 2-20 years. Methods: Arytenoid cartilages were separated randomly into 2 groups: group 1-suture prosthesis inserted directly through the muscular process using a curved trocar point needle and group 2-suture passed through a hole predrilled with a 3 mm bone trocar...
Kraus BM, Ross MW, Boswell RP.Two 2-year-old pacers, a 3-year-old pacer and a 2-year-old-trotter with acute forelimb lameness were admitted for nuclear scintigraphic examination. Horses were grade 3-4/5 lame. There was increased radiopharmaceutical uptake (IRU) in the distal cranial medial aspect of the humerus in one horse and along the caudal humeral cortex in the other three horses. Two of the four horses were affected bilaterally. Radiographic abnormalities consisted of thickening of the caudal cortex of the mid-diaphysis of the humerus but radiographic changes were not present in all horses. All horses were managed wi...
Mair TS, Kinns J.Injury to the distal aspects of the deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) is an important cause of lameness in horses. The purpose of this study was to review the magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings of 18 horses affected by DDFT injuries in the foot. The MRI was performed with the horses standing using an open low-field (0.21 T) MRI scanner. The results were compared with those previously reported for horses using high-field MRI. Eighteen of 84 horses (21%) with undiagnosed forefoot pain were found to have lesions affecting the DDFT. The history, clinical findings and results of radiography,...
Jesty SA, Palmer JE, Parente EJ, Schaer TP, Wilkins PA.Rupture of the gastrocnemius muscle and subsequent disruption of the reciprocal mechanism of the hind limb was diagnosed in 6 foals examined at 7 hours to 3 weeks of age. In 2 foals, the musculoskeletal injury was detected as an ancillary finding to clinical signs of neurologic dysfunction ascribed to hypoxic ischemic insult during delivery, whereas in the other 4 foals, musculoskeletal injury, manifested as inability to rise or stand unsupported, was the chief complaint at admission. Five foals had a history of dystocia and assisted delivery. Common clinical signs were inability to rise, disr...
Archer DC, Boswell JC, Voute LC, Clegg PD.Gamma scintigraphy is a well established imaging modality, which in equine practice is predominantly used in the investigation of lameness and suspected musculoskeletal problems. Whilst there is a growing literature on the indications for scintigraphy in the horse, there has been little emphasis so far on identifying the validity of scintigraphy as a diagnostic test. In particular, to what extent can the results of a scintigraphic examination be trusted? In this opinionated review the current indications for skeletal scintigraphy in the horse are considered and its validity as a diagnostic tes...
Archer DC, Cotton JC, Boswell JC.Gamma scintigraphy is an established imaging modality in the horse and is principally utilised to investigate skeletal disease using bone-seeking radiopharmaceuticals. However, depending on the radiopharmaceutical and imaging sequence, scintigraphy can be used to investigate disease in virtually any organ system. In this article the indications and validity of scintigraphy as a clinical diagnostic tool to investigate non-skeletal disease in the horse are reviewed. These indications include: investigation of dental disease, identification of inflammatory foci, vascular lesions, muscle and tendo...
Marti M, Mevissen M, Althaus H, Steiner A.The goal of this study was to investigate the effect of bethanechol (BeCh) on contractility patterns of smooth muscle preparations of equine duodenum descendens, jejunum, caecum and pelvic flexure in vitro. Concentration-response relationships were developed for BeCh using in vitro assays with and without preincubation of muscarinic (M) receptor antagonists for M2 and M3 receptors. BeCh induced a significant, concentration-dependent increase in contractile response in equine intestine in specimens with circular orientation. The maximal effect was largest for jejunal specimens with no differenc...
Garcia-Seco E, Wilson DA, Cook JL, Kuroki K, Kreeger JM, Keegan KG.To determine normal cartilage stiffness values in different weight-bearing and non-weight-bearing areas of 3 different equine joints, and to evaluate the relationship between cartilage stiffness and glycosaminoglycan (GAG) and collagen content. Methods: Compressive stiffness of the articular cartilage was measured in 8 horse cadaver femoropatellar (FP), tarsocrural (TC), and metatarsophalangeal (MT) joints. Gross evaluation, collagen content, GAG content, and histologic appearance were assessed for each measurement location. Methods: Eight equine cadavers (4 intact females, 4 castrated males; ...
Bertone AL, Bramlage LR, McIlwraith CW, Malemud CJ.To compare articular cartilage from horses with naturally developing osteochondrosis (OC) with normal articular cartilage and healing cartilage obtained from horses with experimentally induced osteochondral fractures. Methods: 109 specimens of articular cartilage from 78 horses. Methods: Morphologic characteristics, proteoglycan (PG), and type II collagen were analyzed in articular cartilage of OC specimens (group 1), matched healing cartilage obtained 40 days after experimentally induced osteochondral fractures (group 2), and matched normal cartilage from the same sites (group 3). Results: 79...
Marx JO, Olsson MC, Larsson L.To fully understand the effect of scaling on skeletal muscle shortening velocity (V (0)), it is important to know which phenotypic characteristics drive the changes between species. The purpose of the current investigation was to compare the effects of body mass and femur length, as an estimate of total limb length, on V (0) in species that cover a 100,000-fold range of body masses. Using the slack test procedure, V (0) was determined for fibers expressing types I and IIa myosin heavy chain (MyHC) isoforms in the mouse, rat, dog, human, horse, and rhinoceros under identical experimental condit...
Takahashi T, Kai M, Hada T, Eto D, Muka K, Ishida N.It has been reported that a small decrease in the strain in the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) occurs if the toe is raised during walking. Although walking on a slope appears similar to raising the toe, it is unclear whether uphill exercise decreases the strain in the SDFT. Because the force or strain on tendons is one of the important factors leading to tendon stress injury, we hypothesised that reducing the force in the SDFT during exercise may prevent tendinitis. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of treadmill inclination on the force in the SDFT in the walking...
Barr AR, Duance VC, Wotton SF, Waterman AE, Holt PE.Cyanogen bromide was used to solubilise and specifically fragment purified equine Type I and II collagen and equine articular surface repair tissue. The resultant peptides were separated by sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and quantified by densitometric scanning. Measurement of the relative amounts of the peptides alpha 2(I) CB3, 5 and alpha 1(II)CB10 provided an accurate method of establishing the ratio of Type I to Type II collagen in mixtures of purified equine collagens. The method was sensitive to 6% Type II collagen when the band areas were corrected for peptid...
Sponseller BT, Wong DM, Ruby R, Ware WA, Wilson S, Haynes JS.A 9-year-old Quarter Horse gelding was presented for lethargy, decreased appetite, polyuria and polydipsia (PU/PD), and severe muscle wasting suggestive of immune-mediated myositis. Results: The horse displayed lethargy, fever, tachyarrhythmia, inappetence, PU/PD, and severe epaxial and gluteal muscle wasting. Clinicopathologic findings were consistent with previously reported cases of systemic calcinosis in horses, including increased muscle enzyme activity, hyperphosphatemia, increased calcium-phosphorus product, hypoproteinemia, and an inflammatory leukogram. A diagnosis of systemic calcino...
Sprick M, Koch C.A 12-year-old, 170 kg, Shetland pony mare was presented with an acute severe right pelvic limb lameness and concurrent upward fixation of the right patella. The affected limb was rotated externally and adducted with a prominent greater trochanter and the right calcaneal tuber being more proximal than its left counterpart. Radiographic examination revealed complete dislocation of the right femoral head from the acetabular cavity in a dorsal and caudal direction. A closed reduction of the coxofemoral luxation was performed successfully under general anaesthesia. A full-body animal rescue and t...
UpRichard K, Elce YA, Piat P, Beauchamp G, Laverty S.To determine the short- and long-term outcome for sport horses after arthroscopic treatment of osteochondrosis of the lateral trochlear ridge of the femur. Methods: A retrospective study was performed using the medical records of horses intended for use as English sport horses. Outcome was obtained through telephone questionnaire. Results: Thirty-seven horses, mainly Warmbloods, underwent arthroscopic surgery for treatment of lateral femoral trochlear ridge osteochondrosis. Short-term outcome revealed that 27 of 37 horses had no complications. Seven horses had postoperative lameness and effusi...
Whitton RC, Rose RJ.To determine the relative contributions of the palmar intercarpal ligaments in the midcarpal joint to the restraint of dorsal displacement of the proximal row of carpal bones. Methods: A biomechanical study of cadaver equine carpi. Methods: Eight equine forelimbs from six thoroughbred horses. Methods: With joints in full extension, the radius was dorsally displaced while midcarpal joint displacement was measured. The restraining force at a joint displacement of 1.5 mm was determined from the load-displacement curve. A ligament or pair of ligaments was then cut and the testing procedure repeate...
Robert C, Valette JP, Jacquet S, Lepeule J, Denoix JM.The possible aetiology of osteochondrosis and, to a lesser extent, other developmental orthopaedic diseases or juvenile osteochondral conditions (JOCC), has been intensively investigated. However, most studies have focused on single factors of this multi-factorial disorder, or have been conducted under experimental conditions. This paper aims to present and discuss the scientific background of the BOSAC (Breeding, Osteochondral Status and Athletic Career) research program, a multi-factorial investigation on JOCC risk factors in field conditions. The epidemiology of JOCC in horses born in Norma...
Bergh A, Nordlöf H, Essén-Gustavsson B.Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) is used to increase or maintain muscle strength during rehabilitation. Human studies investigating different protocols show that some treatments induce changes in muscle characteristics. Despite the frequent use of NMES in horses, no studies have been published describing its efficacy. Objective: To investigate the effects of a NMES protocol on equine fibre types and areas, glycogen concentrations and enzyme activities. Methods: NMES was administrated to m. gluteus medius and m. longissimus dorsi, on one side of 6 healthy Standardbred horses. The con...
Barclay WP, Foerner JJ, Phillips TN.Axial sesamoid injuries were found in 4 of 18 horses with lateral condylar fractures of the metacarpus or metatarsus. The injuries appeared as axial sesamoid fractures or progressive demineralization of the axial border of one of the sesamoids. None of the horses with axial sesamoid injuries returned to performance soundness. Axial sesamoid injury appeared to be an indication of severe fetlock trauma due to condylar fracture. Such injuries appeared to indicate a poor prognosis for return to performance soundness.
Gibson KT, McIlwraith CW, Park RD, Norrdin RW.Medial patellar desmotomy was performed on one (treated) hindlimb, and a sham operation on the other (control) hindlimb, of 12 normal horses. The horses were examined for lameness before medial patellar desmotomy and at months 1, 2, and 3. The femoropatellar joints were examined radiographically and arthroscopically at month 3. All horses were lame on the treated limb at months 1, 2, or 3. Radiographic changes, including fragment formation at the distal aspect of the patella and bone production at the attachment of the middle patellar ligament on the patella, were present in 11 horses at month...
Singer E, Garcia T, Stover S.The biomechanical circumstances that promote sagittal fracture of the equine proximal phalanx (P1) are poorly understood. In order to improve our understanding of equine metacarpophalangeal joint (MCPJ) biomechanics and potential aetiologies of sagittal P1 fractures, the study objectives were to quantify P1 bone strains, collateromotion and axial rotation during MCPJ extension under controlled loading circumstances. Unilateral limbs from six cadavers were instrumented with bone reference markers for measurement of P1 movement relative to third metacarpal bone positions during axial limb loadin...
Conrado FO, Beatty SSK.Fluid analysis is an important part of the diagnostic work-up of equine patients presenting with disorders of the nervous system, musculoskeletal system, and abdominal cavity. Proper specimen handling and processing are paramount for complete and accurate interpretation of fluid samples. Normal cerebrospinal fluid is a low-cellularity, low-protein fluid requiring specific sample handling to ensure accurate results. Joint and abdominal fluid analyses are completed in practice or submitted for analysis to a reference laboratory. This article discusses fluid sample handling and processing conside...
Stokol T, Erb H.We investigated the apo-enzyme content of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) in clinically normal and ill canine, feline, equine and bovine patients. Aminotransferase activity was measured with and without the addition of exogenous pyridoxal-5'-phosphate (P5P). The amount of apo-enzyme was expressed as the percentage change in aminotransferase activity with the inclusion of P5P. The results of aminotransferase assays without P5P (holo-enzyme activity) were highly correlated to the results obtained with P5P (total enzyme activity) in all four species (Spearman r...
Desantis S, Ventriglia G, Zizza S, Guaricci AC, Losurdo M, Zarrilli A, Albrizio M.The presence of the mu-opioid receptor (MOR) was investigated in the mare oviduct during oestrus and anoestrus, by means of immunoblotting and immunohistochemistry. Immunoblotting analysis showed that the MOR protein is expressed as 65, 50 and 30 kDa forms in the infundibulum and ampulla both in oestrus and anoestrus, while the 30 kDa form is absent in the isthmus. Moreover, different levels of expression were observed along the ampulla in the two periods examined. Immunohistochemistry revealed MOR in the mucosal epithelium, stromal cells, myocytes and blood vessels. Ciliated cells expressed M...
Winter MD.The usefulness of magnetic resonance (MR) imaging in the diagnosis of equine lameness is unquestionable. As with most imaging modalities, advances in technology happen quickly, and the information that can be obtained can seem limitless. An understanding of MR sequences, expected signal intensity of normal tissues, and the role of multiplanar imaging is the foundation for interpreting MR images. The rapid development of new techniques and sequences and the potential for biochemical changes to be indirectly assessed using MR spectroscopy offer possibilities for the continued development of this...
Poole DC, Petrisko RN, Anderson L, Fedde MR, Erickson HH.During exercise, the horse can achieve oxygen uptakes and ventilations in excess of 200 ml/kg/min and 1800 l/min, respectively. Whether the diaphragm has the capacity to contribute substantially to inspiratory effort in the exercising horse is not known. To investigate the potential for the horse diaphragm to generate tension, lung displacement and sustain ventilatory function, we measured diaphragm thickness, muscle length and oxidative enzyme activity (citrate synthase) within the ventral, medial and dorsal costal and crural diaphragm. In the diaphragms of 6 mature horses (5 Thoroughbreds, o...
Latham CM, Fenger CK, White SH.Responses of equine skeletal muscle characteristics to growth and training have been shown to differ between breeds. These differential responses may arise in part because muscle fiber type and mitochondrial density differ between breeds, even in untrained racing-bred horses. However, it is not known when these breed-specific differences manifest. To test the hypothesis that weanling Standardbreds (SB) and Thoroughbreds (TB) would have higher mitochondrial measures than Quarter Horses (QH), gluteus medius samples were collected from SB (mean ± SD; 6.2 ± 1.0 mo; n = 10), TB (6.1 ± 0.5 mo; n ...
Hildebrand SV, Hill T.Evoked hind limb digital extensor tension (hoof twitch) was maintained at 40% of baseline for 1 h by atracurium infusion in 7 horses anaesthetised with halothane. After 1 h, atracurium was discontinued and hoof twitch allowed to recover to 75%. Atracurium was again given by infusion to maintain 40% twitch for a second hour, then 2 mg gentamycin/kg bwt were given i.v. Atracurium infusion was continued for a third hour, and then hoof twitch was again allowed to recover spontaneously to 75%. Gentamycin reduced twitch strength from 40 +/- 1% (mean +/- sem) to 29 +/- 4% within 7.0 +/- 1.5 min (P = ...
Walji AH, Fasana FV.Gross and microscopic study of Cercopithecus aethiops pygerythrus and Papio cyanocephalus anubis shows that these cercopithecines have a quadriceps tendon the distal portion of which consists mostly of dense collagenous bundles with scattered fine elastic fibres most of which lie in the loose connective tissue planes within and around the tendon and around blood vessels. A distinct fibrovesicular structure, the suprapatella, lies within the tendon of the vastus intermedius above the pony patella. Histologically, this structure is characterised by interwoven bundles of collagenous fibres, among...
Secchi V, Masala G, Corda A, Corda F, Potop E, Barbero Fernandez A, Pinna Parpaglia ML, Sanna Passino E.Early diagnosis of tendon injuries and accurate long-term monitoring of the healing process are key for equine veterinarians that use conventional ultrasonography. The development of strain elastography could improve the management of clinical cases. The aim of the study was to assess the intraobserver repeatability and interobserver reproducibility of manual measurements of the colored areas of the tendons within elastograms and to standardize this manual modality by comparing the analysis of the images with ImageJ. Twenty elastograms of the injured superficial digital flexor tendons (SDFTs) ...
Smith LCR, Wylie CE, Palmer L, Ramzan PHL.There is a need for investigation of associations between intrasynovial medication and fracture risk in racehorses. Objective: To document the proportion and type of fracture occurring following intrasynovial medication. Methods: Retrospective longitudinal study. Methods: Review of clinical records from all Thoroughbred flat racehorses receiving intrasynovial medication under the care of a first-opinion veterinary practice between 2006 and 2011. Fractures pre- and post-medication were categorised by location, type, and severity; analysis of fractures sustained within 56-days of medication was ...
Boswell JC, Schramme MC, Wilson AM, May SA.A radiological study was performed to test the hypothesis that osteoarthritis of the scapulohumeral joint in Shetland ponies is secondary to shoulder dysplasia. Animals were selected into 3 groups: Group 1: Shetland ponies with a radiological and clinical diagnosis of scapulohumeral osteoarthritis (n = 8); Group 2: Shetland ponies without forelimb lameness (n = 12); Group 3: Horses/ponies without a history or clinical signs of forelimb lameness (n = 22). Anatomical indices were measured from mediolateral radiographs of a scapulohumeral joint from each animal. There was a significant difference...
Marycz K, Smieszek A, Grzesiak J, Nicpoń JE.Disorders of the locomotive system, especially those occurring due to degenerative changes of the joints, are serious problems in daily veterinary medical practice. Steroid injections are the main way of treating these disorders. However, this approach brings usually only temporary effects of pain relief, and may cause many side effects. Alternative therapies focus on regeneration of damaged tissue using adult mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Since 2002, the great plasticity and immunomodulatory properties of MSCs isolated from adipose tissue (AdMSCs) have been used successfully in the treatment...
Seabaugh KA, Hubert JD, Kawcak CE, McGilvray KC, Santoni BG, Rao S, Baxter GM.To quantify changes in biomechanical stability and stiffness within the equine carpus after removal of 50%, 80%, and 100% of the second metacarpal bone (MC2). Methods: In vitro biomechanical study. Methods: Cadaveric equine forelimbs (n = 16) were evaluated. Intact constructs were loaded in axial compression from 0 to 5000 N and compression + torsion (5000 N ± 20°) for 5 cycles. This was repeated after removal of 50%, 80%, and 100% of MC2. The primary biomechanical outcome variables were the compressive stiffness and compressive + torsional stiffness of the carpus. Relative kinematic motion ...
Hinz A, Fischer AT.To compare the accuracy of ultrasonographic and radiographic examination for evaluation of articular lesions in horses. Methods: Cross-sectional study. Methods: Horses (n = 137) with articular lesions. Methods: Radiographic and ultrasonographic examinations of the affected joint(s) were performed before diagnostic or therapeutic arthroscopic surgery. Findings were recorded and compared to lesions identified during arthroscopy. Results: In 254 joints, 432 lesions were identified by arthroscopy. The overall accuracy was 82.9% for ultrasonography and 62.2% for radiography (P < .0001) with a se...
Gillis C, Meagher DM, Cloninger A, Locatelli L, Willits N.Fifty Thoroughbred horses were examined. All horses had been in race training for a minimum of 4 months before examination and had worked at racing speed; 24 horses had raced. All horses were clinically sound at the time of examination. Ultrasonography was performed, using a 7.5-MHz transducer with built-in fluid offset. Videotaped images of the palmar soft tissue structures were obtained at 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24 cm distal to the base of the accessory carpal bone (DACB). Images were digitized, and each image was calibrated. Values for cross-sectional area (CSA) and mean echogenicity (ME) wer...
Burns TA, Watts MR, Weber PS, McCutcheon LJ, Geor RJ, Belknap JK.In EMS-associated laminitis, laminar failure may occur in response to energy failure related to insulin resistance (IR) or to the effect of hyperinsulinemia on laminar tissue. 5'-Adenosine-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a marker of tissue energy deprivation, which may occur in IR. Objective: To characterize tissue AMPK regulation in ponies subjected to a dietary carbohydrate (CHO) challenge. Methods: Twenty-two mixed-breed ponies. Methods: Immunohistochemistry and immunoblotting for total AMPK and phospho(P)-AMPK and RT-qPCR for AMPK-responsive genes were performed on laminar...
McD￮ LA, Stover SM, Coleman K.To determine a range of limb loading activity for healthy adult horses confined to box stalls in an equine veterinary teaching hospital and determine the effects of hospital environmental factors on load rates and daily limb loading patterns. Methods: 6 mature healthy horses of various ages, breeds, and sexes, and 1 horse with a repaired metatarsal fracture. Methods: Step monitors were placed on 2 limbs of adult horses confined to box stalls. Relocation steps and weight shifts were recorded, as loading events, for 24 hours. Influence of forelimb versus hind limb and environmental factors on lo...
Smith AJ, Felstead CW, Lawson JS, Weller R.Radiography is the most commonly applied imaging modality in equine practice and forms an essential part of the diagnostic work-up of lame horses. Radiographic signs of musculoskeletal pathology are frequently localized at sites of soft tissue attachment, which are often not clearly visible on radiographs. Different lesions carry different prognoses and require a variety of treatments, and a good knowledge of the position of the synovial structures in the distal limb of the horse is essential for practitioners in the interpretation of radiographs. This study describes a new technique for creat...
Autry JM, Svensson B, Carlson SF, Chen Z, Cornea RL, Thomas DD, Valberg SJ.We have analyzed the enzymatic activity of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca2+-transporting ATPase (SERCA) from the horse gluteal muscle. Horses are bred for peak athletic performance yet exhibit a high incidence of exertional rhabdomyolysis, with elevated levels of cytosolic Ca2+ proposed as a correlative linkage. We recently reported an improved protocol for isolating SR vesicles from horse muscle; these horse SR vesicles contain an abundant level of SERCA and only trace-levels of sarcolipin (SLN), the inhibitory peptide subunit of SERCA in mammalian fast-twitch skeletal muscle. Here, we re...
