Topic:Ponies
Ponies are members of the Equus genus, distinguished primarily by differences in size, build, and certain physiological traits. Horses are typically larger, with a height at the withers exceeding 14.2 hands (58 inches), while ponies measure 14.2 hands or shorter. These distinctions are not solely based on size; ponies often exhibit thicker manes, tails, and overall sturdier builds. Despite these differences, both ponies and horses share similar dietary needs, social behaviors, and reproductive processes. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomical, genetic, and behavioral aspects of ponies and horses, as well as their roles in various human activities and environments.
Cardiopulmonary effects of romifidine and detomidine used as premedicants for ketamine/halothane anaesthesia in ponies. The cardiopulmonary effects of romifidine at 80 microg/kg (R80) or 120 pg/kg (R120), and detomidine at 20 pg/kg (D20) when used as premedicants for ketamine/halothane anaesthesia were investigated in six ponies. Using a blinded crossover design, acepromazine (0-04 mg/kg) was administered followed by the alpha-2 agonist. Anaesthesia was induced with ketamine at 2.2 mg/kg and maintained with halothane (expired concentration 1.0 per cent) in oxygen for three hours. During anaesthesia, arterial blood pressure, cardiac index, PaO2 and PmvO2 decreased, and systemic vascular resistance and PaCO2 incr...
The effectiveness of the haemodialysate Solcoseryl for second-intention wound healing in horses and ponies. Second-intention healing of limb wounds in horses is often problematic. Solcoseryl is a protein-free, standardized dialysate/ultrafiltrate (HD) derived from calf blood, which has been shown to improve healing in both animals and humans. The efficacy of HD in the healing of deep wounds in horses and ponies was investigated. Deep wounds of 20 by 35 mm were created on both metatarsi (skin, subcutis, periosteum) and on both femoral biceps muscles (skin, subcutis, muscle) of five horses and five ponies. The wounds on one side were treated with HD, four times a week during the period that the wounds...
Polysaccharide storage myopathy in Morgan, Arabian, and Standardbred related horses and Welsh-cross ponies. Polysaccharide storage myopathy is an equine neuromuscular disorder characterized by accumulation of glycogen-related polysaccharide inclusions within skeletal muscle fibers. The pathologic criteria for diagnosis of this disorder are somewhat controversial; however, periodic acid-Schiff-positive, amylase-resistant inclusions are considered pathognomonic. Although these inclusions are most often found in affected horses related to the Quarter Horse, draft horse, and Warmblood breeds, this report describes these characteristic inclusions in muscle of five horses from nonrelated breeds (two Morga...
Radiological study to evaluate suspected scapulohumeral joint dysplasia in Shetland ponies. A radiological study was performed to test the hypothesis that osteoarthritis of the scapulohumeral joint in Shetland ponies is secondary to shoulder dysplasia. Animals were selected into 3 groups: Group 1: Shetland ponies with a radiological and clinical diagnosis of scapulohumeral osteoarthritis (n = 8); Group 2: Shetland ponies without forelimb lameness (n = 12); Group 3: Horses/ponies without a history or clinical signs of forelimb lameness (n = 22). Anatomical indices were measured from mediolateral radiographs of a scapulohumeral joint from each animal. There was a significant difference...
Vaccination against lyme disease with recombinant Borrelia burgdorferi outer-surface protein A (rOspA) in horses. Eight 1-year-old ponies were vaccinated with recombinant OspA (ospA gene derived from B. burgdorferi B31) with adjuvant (aluminium hydroxide). Four ponies were used as non-vaccinated controls with adjuvant. One hundred and twelve days after the first vaccination, the vaccinated and non-vaccinated ponies were challenged by exposure to B. burgdorferi-infected adults tick (Ixodes scapularis) collected from Westchester County, New York (tick infection rate >/=60%). Protection from infection was evaluated by culture for B. burgdorferi from three monthly skin biopsies taken near the site of tick bit...
Platelets from thrombocytopenic ponies acutely infected with equine infectious anemia virus are activated in vivo and hypofunctional. Thrombocytopenia is a consistent finding and one of the earliest hematological abnormalities in horses acutely infected with equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV), a lentivirus closely related to human immunodeficiency virus. Multifactorial mechanisms, including immune-mediated platelet destruction and impaired platelet production, are implicated in the pathogenesis of EIAV-associated thrombocytopenia. This study was undertaken to investigate whether regenerative thrombopoiesis and platelet destruction occurred in ponies acutely infected with EIAV. Circulating large, immature platelets were in...
Differences in second-intention wound healing between horses and ponies: macroscopic aspects. Second-intention healing of deep wounds was studied in 5 horses and 5 ponies. Standardised wounds were created on the distal limbs and hind quarters. Wounds on the metatarsi extended onto the metatarsal bone; the depth of the wounds in the femoral biceps muscle was 18 mm. The wound margins were marked by tattoos. Photographs were taken at weekly intervals to determine the wound area. The relative contribution of contraction and epithelialisation to wound closure was quantified by means of the tattoos. Swelling of the limbs was measured; and regularity and aspect of the granulation tissue were ...
The cardiopulmonary effects of clenbuterol when administered to dorsally recumbent halothane-anaesthetised ponies–failure to increase arterial oxygenation. Clenbuterol (0.8 microg kg(-1) intravenously) was investigated in ponies (small horses) anaesthetised with acepromazine, detomidine and thiopentone, then halothane in oxygen alone (hyperoxic group) or with nitrous oxide (hypoxic group). Following instrumentation, ponies were placed in dorsal recumbency for 60 minutes, clenbuterol (both groups) or a saline control (hyperoxic group) given, and cardiopulmonary parameters monitored for a further 60 minutes. In the hyperoxic group, clenbuterol administration resulted in a transitory (<five minutes) 15 per cent fall in arterial blood pressure and...
Failure of psyllium mucilloid to hasten evaluation of sand from the equine large intestine. To examine the efficacy of psyllium mucilloid in evacuating sand from the equine large intestine. Methods: 12 clinically healthy pony geldings. Methods: Twelve ponies were assigned to 2 groups of six each. One group was treated with psyllium and the second was a control group. All ponies had an exploratory celiotomy and 10 g/kg body weight of sand was placed into the cecum. Ponies were fed a grain mixture alone at 1 g/kg (controls), a grain mixture plus psyllium pellets, each at 1 g/kg body weight (3 ponies), or fed a grain mixture and given psyllium powder by nasogastric tube at 1 g/kg body w...
Immunohistochemical demonstration of African horse sickness viral antigen in tissues of experimentally infected equines. African horse sickness virus (AHSV) antigen was demonstrated immunohistochemically in formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded sections of tissues collected from three ponies suffering from the peracute form of the disease and from one pony affected by the fever form. The pattern of the antigen distribution indicated a particular organ tropism characterised by an accumulation of AHSV antigen in cardio-pulmonary tissues of the animals with the peracute disease and in the spleen of the pony with the fever form. AHSV antigen was identified in endothelial cells of small blood vessels, particularly capill...
Effect of density and weight of load on the energy cost of carrying loads by donkeys and ponies. Two experiments were designed to compare the energy used in carrying loads by donkeys and ponies. In the first experiment 3 donkeys and 3 ponies were compared on treadmills in the UK. Density of load (lead shot or straw) had no significant effect on the energy cost of carrying loads; however, the energy cost of carrying a load decreased significantly (p < 0.001) as the weight of the load increased (in donkeys 6.44, 4.35 and 3.03 J/kg load/m, in ponies 5.82, 3.75 and 3.68 J/kg load/m, for loads of 13, 20 and 27 kg/100 kg liveweight (M) respectively). Differences between species were not sign...
Effect of synovitis and corticosteroids on transcription of cartilage matrix proteins. To determine whether steady-state levels of type-II procollagen, aggrecan core protein, or fibronectin mRNA in articular chondrocytes are altered by synovitis or administration of methylprednisolone acetate (MPA). Methods: Articular cartilage specimens collected from 10 ponies, 2.5 to 3.5 years old and 200 to 300 kg. Methods: 4 experimental groups were compared, using the cartilage specimens: control, MPA-treated, lipopolysaccharide-induced synovitis, and lipopolysaccharide-induced synovitis with MPA treatment. RNA was isolated from articular cartilage and compared by northern blot analysis, u...
Effects of surgery on endocrine and metabolic responses to anaesthesia in horses and ponies. The effects of surgery on endocrine and metabolic responses to anaesthesia were investigated in seven horses and eight ponies. They were anaesthetised twice and surgery was carried out on one occasion. Cardiorespiratory monitoring was performed and blood samples were taken for assay of cortisol, glucose, lactate, insulin, catecholamines and non-esterified fatty acids. All groups developed arterial hypotension which was more marked in the surgical groups where post operative pulse rate was also higher. Plasma cortisol concentration increased in all groups during anaesthesia but remained higher ...
Elimination of mucosal cyathostome larvae by five daily treatments with fenbendazole. The efficacy of five daily treatments with 7.5 mg fenbendazole/kg bodyweight against mucosal cyathostome larvae was evaluated in 20 12- and 24-month-old ponies with naturally acquired cyathostome infections. After three weeks communal grazing on infected pasture and six weeks indoors, one group of 10 ponies were treated. Six weeks later, both groups of ponies were humanely destroyed and their burdens of large intestinal cyathostome worms, including luminal parasites and mucosal larvae, were assessed. In the control animals approximately 7 per cent of the total worm burden was present in the gu...
Efficacy of moxidectin 2% equine gel against natural nematode infections in ponies. The efficacy of moxidectin 2% oral gel (Equest, Fort-Dodge) against European worm strains was studied through post-mortem worm counts and feacal egg counts (FECs) in 12 young ponies naturally infected. The animals were allocated in two groups of six ponies each: the first one was treated at 0.4 mg/kg b.w. and the second one received a placebo and served as control. All the ponies were necropsied 14 days post-treatment. The efficacy of moxidectin in reducing strongyle FECs ranged from 99.8% to 100% from 3 to 14 days after treatment. Moxidectin efficacy was 100% against Trichostrongylus axei and...
Effect of high volume epidural morphine, ketamine and butorphanol on halothane minimum alveolar concentration in ponies. This study determined the effects of epidurally administered morphine, ketamine and butorphanol on halothane minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) in ponies. Seven ponies were anaesthetised with thiopentone and succinylcholine, intubated and anaesthesia maintained with halothane. Ventilation was controlled and blood pressure was maintained within normal limits. Following the determination of baseline halothane MAC for the pelvic and thoracic limbs the ponies were given morphine (0.1 mg/kg bwt), ketamine (0.8 or 1.2 mg/kg bwt), butorphanol (0.05 mg/kg bwt) or saline, epidurally, to a final volum...
Endocrine changes in cerebrospinal fluid, pituitary effluent, and peripheral plasma of anesthetized ponies. To investigate the effects of inhalation and total IV anesthesia on pituitary-adrenal activity in ponies. Methods: 9 healthy ponies: 5 geldings and 4 mares. Methods: Catheters were placed in the cavernous sinus below the pituitary gland and in the subarachnoid space via the lumbosacral space. After 72 hours, administration of acepromazine was followed by induction of anesthesia with thiopentone and maintenance with halothane (halothane protocol), or for the IV protocol, anesthesia induction with detomidine and ketamine was followed by maintenance with IV infusion of a detomidine-ketamine-guaif...
Tumor necrosis factor-alpha production and disease severity after immunization with enriched major core protein (p26) and/or infection with equine infectious anemia virus. Cardinal features of equine infectious anemia (EIA) include fever, hemolytic anemia and thrombocytopenia during the acute phase of the disease, and cachexia and anemia seen during the chronic phase. These signs are thought to result from the release of inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-alpha. In order to determine if TNF-alpha has a role in the pathogenesis of acute EIA and vaccine-induced disease enhancement, we measured plasma concentrations of TNF-alpha in ponies immunized with virus enriched major core protein-p26 and/or experimentally infected with EIAV. Naturally infected inapparent EIA...
Effects of alfentanil on the equine electroencephalogram during anaesthesia with halothane in oxygen. Opioids have variable effects on the minimum alveolar concentration of inhaled anaesthetics in the horse. During halothane anaesthesia at an end-tidal halothane concentration between 0.75 and 0.85 percent, the electroencephalogram (EEG) frequency power spectrum and the auditory evoked potential were recorded continuously in eight ponies during an infusion of approximately 40 micrograms kg-1 alfentanil over five minutes, and for a further 55 minutes. The spectral edge and median frequency of the EEG and the mid-latency of the auditory evoked potential at the time of maximum change of these vari...
A pharmacodynamic study of propofol or propofol and ketamine infusions in ponies undergoing surgery. The pharmacodynamics of infusions of propofol alone (group 1) were compared with the pharmacodynamics of infusions of propofol and ketamine together (group 2) in eight ponies undergoing castration. Anaesthesia was induced with detomidine, 20 micrograms kg-1, followed by ketamine, 2.2 mg kg-1. Subsequently, a bolus dose of propofol, 0.5 mg kg-1, was administered intravenously to both groups, and an infusion of propofol was given for an average of 74 minutes to group 1, and an infusion of propofol and ketamine was given for 60 minutes to group 2. The mean (SD) infusion rates of propofol were 0.3...
Effect of sodium bisulfate on ammonia concentration, fly population, and manure pH in a horse barn. To evaluate the effectiveness of altering the pH of manure with sodium bisulfate, thereby decreasing ammonia concentration and fly population in a horse barn environment. Methods: 4 mixed-breed pony stallions. Methods: The 4-week study was scheduled with 2 weeks of treatment (with 2 application rates) and 2 weeks with no treatment (control weeks). During treatment weeks, sodium bisulfate was applied daily to the top of the bedding and straw, then spread on top. Ponies were kept in the stalls 24 hours a day during the 7-day test period and stall cleaning was not done. On day 7 of each week, amm...
A study (1977-1992) of population dynamics of endoparasites featuring benzimidazole-resistant small strongyles (population S) in Shetland ponies. Critical tests (91) were done between 1977 and 1992 in Shetland ponies to evaluate drug susceptibility and population dynamics (present paper) of endoparasites. The test ponies, most less than 1 year old, were from a herd where older animals were treated every 8 weeks initially with cambendazole (CBZ) (1974-1978) and then with oxibendazole (OBZ) (1978-1992). Previous field test data (1974-1992) on older ponies in the breeding herd indicated the presence of benzimidazole (BZ) resistant small strongyles. Data on population dynamics from the present critical tests indicated that 28 species of sma...
Physiologic effects of anesthesia induced and maintained by intravenous administration of a climazolam-ketamine combination in ponies premedicated with acepromazine and xylazine. To examine the physiologic and pharmacokinetic effects of a technique of total intravenous anesthesia in ponies. Methods: 6 healthy ponies. Methods: Ponies were premedicated with acepromazine (0.03 mg/kg of body weight, IV) and xylazine (1.0 mg/kg, IV). Two minutes later, anesthesia was induced with ketamine (2.0 mg/kg, IV) followed by climazolam (0.2 mg/kg, IV). Anesthesia was maintained for 120 minutes by an infusion of climazolam (0.4 mg/kg/h) and ketamine (6.0 mg/kg/h). Oxygen (5 L/min) was supplemented. 20 minutes after the infusion was stopped sarmazenil (0.04 mg/kg, IV) was administered...
Evaluation of thrombin-antithrombin complexes and fibrin fragment D in carbohydrate-induced acute laminitis. Carbohydrate-induced laminitis has been associated with decreased platelet survival, decreased blood flow to the hoof wall and with the deposition of platelets and microthrombi within venules in the dermal laminae. To evaluate further the systemic prothrombotic events occurring in the prodromal stages of laminitis, plasma samples from control and laminitis-affected ponies and horses were tested for the presence of thrombin-antithrombin (TAT) complexes and fibrin fragment D (D-dimer). No statistically significant differences between the control and laminitis-affected animals were observed for e...
Cardiopulmonary effects of desflurane in ponies, after induction of anaesthesia with xylazine and ketamine. Cardiopulmonary parameters were measured in 12 ponies (small horses) before anaesthesia and, following induction with xylazine and ketamine, during maintenance of anaesthesia with desflurane. In six of the ponies (group A) anaesthesia was maintained for three hours with desflurane at an end-tidal concentration of 7.4 per cent. In the other six ponies (group B), anaesthesia was maintained in the same way for one hour and then the effects of end-tidal desflurane concentrations of 7.4 per cent and 9.6 per cent with and without artificial ventilation were investigated. In group A ponies the arteri...
Comparison of moxidectin oral gel and ivermectin oral paste against a spectrum of internal parasites of ponies with special attention to encysted cyathostome larvae. Two dosages of moxidectin oral gel were evaluated and compared to a therapeutic dose of ivermectin oral paste in the control of a spectrum of gastrointestinal parasites of ponies naturally infected in southern Louisiana or Mississippi. Thirty-two mixed-breed ponies ranging in age from one to 21 years were used in this controlled test. Eight weeks prior to the experiment, ponies grazing on contaminated pasture were moved to a paddock and fed a pelleted ration, thus reducing or eliminating the potential for additional infection and ensuring the existence of a population of encysted larvae. Ponie...
Cardiopulmonary effects of medetomidine in sheep and in ponies. Medetomidine was administered intravenously to six sheep at 5, 10 and 20 micrograms kg-1 and to one horse and four ponies at 5 and 10 micrograms kg-1. In both species medetomidine resulted in significant decreases in heart rate and cardiac output and, initially, in an increase in arterial blood pressure. In the ponies this increase in blood pressure was followed by a significant and prolonged decrease, but in the sheep the secondary decrease in blood pressure was not statistically significant. In the sheep, the three doses of medetomidine resulted in profound and significant decreases in arter...
Fine specificity of equine infectious anaemia virus gp90-specific antibodies associated with protective and enhancing immune responses in experimentally infected and immunized ponies. Equine infectious anaemia virus (EIAV) provides a model for examining the natural immunological control of a persistent lentivirus infection and for evaluating the efficacy of various vaccine strategies. As an initial characterization of antibody responses associated with protective or enhancing immune responses elicited by experimental infections or vaccinations, we have utilized synthetic peptide ELISA to characterize the fine specificity of antibodies to linear determinants of the EIAV surface glycoprotein, gp90. The data indicated that serum antibodies associated with protective or enhanci...
The diagnostic nerve block of the sesamoidean nerve: desensitized structures and possible clinical applications. The sesamoidean nerve branches from the palmar nerve and runs towards the proximal sesamoid bone. To study the structures innervated by this nerve, a technique for blocking it was developed. The effect of this nerve block was determined in ponies with an induced lameness located in the lateral proximal sesamoid bone (5 ponies) or in the distal part of the lateral branch of the suspensory ligament (5 ponies), and in 10 horses with clinical sesamoidosis. A lameness provoked by the implantation of an expansion plug in the proximal sesamoid bone could, to a large extent, be anaesthetized by a sesa...