The stifle joint in horses is a complex synovial joint located in the hind limb, analogous to the human knee. It comprises several components, including the femur, tibia, patella, and associated ligaments and cartilage. The stifle joint facilitates various movements and is integral to the horse's locomotion. Conditions affecting the stifle joint, such as osteochondritis dissecans, ligament injuries, and arthritis, can impact a horse's performance and quality of life. Diagnostic approaches often involve physical examinations, imaging techniques like X-rays and ultrasonography, and sometimes arthroscopy. This page gathers peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, function, common disorders, and diagnostic and treatment methodologies related to the stifle joint in horses.
Pál Z, Tuska P, Vásárhelyi G, Hangody L, Hurtig M, Kaposi AD, Bodó G.To evaluate the clinical application of equine mosaic arthroplasty for joint surface repair, including outcomes and complications. Methods: Retrospective clinical study. Methods: A total of 31 horses diagnosed with subchondral bone cysts (SBCs) in the femoral condyle (22/31), distal metacarpus (7/31), or metatarsus (2/31). Methods: Medical records of horses that underwent autologous or allogeneic osteochondral graft transplantation were reviewed. Follow-up lasted at least 12 months. Success was determined in terms of improvements in lameness and post-surgical athletic performance, classified...
Cantatore F, Marcatili M, Giacchi A, Stephenson R, Withers J.Morel-Lavallée lesions (MLLs) are post-traumatic, closed, degloving injuries observed in humans and cats. Morel-Lavallée lesions have never been reported in horses. An 8-year-old Warmblood gelding used for dressage presented with a large swelling on the craniomedial aspect of the stifle that did not respond to conservative treatment. Ultrasonography revealed a large anechogenic fluid-filled cavity with a well-defined capsule. Standing endoscopic examination revealed separation between the deep crural fascia, vastus medialis muscle and skin. Cytology of the fluid collected demonstrated a lymp...
Sohn Y, An SJ, Forbes E, Kim BS, Jeon HS, Ryu SH, Lee I.The lateral trochlear ridge of the stifle joint is highly susceptible to developing Osteochondrosis (OC)/Osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) lesions. This retrospective study evaluated the medical and racing outcomes of 75 Thoroughbreds who underwent arthroscopic OCD removal at the Jeju Stud Farm Equine Hospital from 2015 to 2017. The analysis included medical records, radiographic assessments, and race performance data, comparing 75 horses that underwent surgery with 257 control horses selected as siblings from the same dam. The surgical group had comparable racehorse registration rates (89.3 %...
Esselman AM, Johnson SA, Hague BA, Frisbie DD.(1) To evaluate the ability of western performance horses diagnosed with chondromalacia to return to performance; Specifically, the relationship between the grade of chondromalacia and the horses' ability to resume work; (2) To determine the impact of postoperative therapy on clinical outcomes. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Horses (n = 34). Methods: Records of western performance horses with lameness localized to the stifle that underwent subsequent arthroscopy with chondromalacia as the most significant diagnosis were reviewed. Chondromalacia was surgeon-graded as slight, m...
Stedman JM, Lutter JD, Hallman C, Laverty S, Richard H, Santschi EM.High-field MRI of the equine stifle provides high-resolution information about soft tissues that is useful in the diagnosis of stifle lameness. The aim of this prospective anatomic study was to describe the appearance, position, size, and shape of the equine femorotibial ligaments, meniscal ligaments, and menisci using 3 Tesla MRI under extended, extended-loaded, and flexed conditions. Additionally, histologic examination of the collateral and cruciate ligaments (CLs) of a single stifle was performed to compare with MRI images. In extension, mild variations in MRI signal intensity were apparen...
Wadbled L, Finck C, Santschi EM, Morehead JP, Fogarty U, Lemirre T, Beauchamp G, Richard H, Laverty S.Assess femorotibial features in foals with and without medial femoral condyle (MFC) subchondral radiolucencies (SR+ and SR-). Methods: 3 independent, sequential radiographic studies were performed. Study 1 retrospectively measured femorotibial morphological parameters in repository radiographs (SR- and SR+). Study 2 qualitatively compared drawings of intercondylar notch shape in postmortem radiographs (SR-). Study 3 prospectively measured femorotibial parameters in 1-month-old foals (SR-). In studies 1 and 3, 13 morphologic parameters were measured. Limb directional asymmetry was assessed in 2...
Schöpper H, Egerbacher M.The vascularization pattern of the equine stifle joint is insufficiently described in the literature, even though there is a growing need for knowledge of the exact blood supply, as (i) arthroscopy and endoscopic surgery techniques are increasingly performed in horses and (ii) ex vivo models of menisci need nutrient supply that mimic the in vivo situation. The aim of this study was to describe the vessels involved in the stifle joint supply and the exact branching pattern of the popliteal artery. Colored latex was injected into the arteries of nine pelvic limbs of equine cadavers (n = 6) to ev...
Bolz NM, Ehrle A, Mählmann K, Lischer CJ.To describe cases with caudal cruciate ligament (CdCL) avulsion fragments diagnosed based on computed tomography (CT) examination and report on arthroscopic fragment removal. Methods: Four Warmblood horses with hindlimb lameness and osseous fragments located in the caudal medial femorotibial joint (mFTJ). Methods: Short case series. Methods: CT and arthroscopic evaluation of the caudal mFTJ were performed. The caudal mFTJ and the insertion of the CdCL on the tibia were assessed and removal of the avulsion fragments was attempted in three horses using a cranial intercondylar approach. Results: ...
Bolz NM, Sánchez-Andrade JS, Torgerson PR, Bischofberger AS.The purpose of the study was to determine the diagnostic performance of computed tomographic arthrography (CTA) and 3-Tesla magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for detecting artificial cartilage lesions in equine femorotibial and femoropatellar joints. Methods: A total of 79 cartilage defects were created arthroscopically in 15 cadaver stifles from adult horses in eight different locations. In addition, 68 sites served as negative controls. MRI and CTA (80-160 mL iodinated contrast media at 87.5 mg/mL per joint) studies were obtained and evaluated by a radiologist unaware of the lesion distributi...
He H, Banks SA, Biedrzycki AH.The objective of this study was to provide an overarching description of the inter-subject variability of the equine femur and tibia morphology using statistical shape modeling. Fifteen femora and fourteen tibiae were used for building the femur and tibia statistical shape models, respectively. Geometric variations in each mode were explained by biometrics measured on ±3 standard deviation instances generated by the shape models. Approximately 95% of shape variations within the population were described by 6 and 3 modes in the femur and tibia shape models, respectively. In the femur shape mod...
Fugazzola M, Nissinen MT, Jäntti J, Tuppurainen J, Plomp S, Te Moller N, Mäkelä JTA, van Weeren R.Strategies for articular cartilage repair need to take into account topographical differences in tissue composition and architecture to achieve durable functional outcome. These have not yet been investigated in the equine stifle. Objective: To analyse the biochemical composition and architecture of three differently loaded areas of the equine stifle. We hypothesise that site differences correlate with the biomechanical characteristics of the cartilage. Methods: Ex vivo study. Methods: Thirty osteochondral plugs per location were harvested from the lateral trochlear ridge (LTR), the distal int...
Peat FJ, Kawcak CE, McIlwraith CW, Keenan DP, Berk JT, Mork DS.Subchondral lucencies (SCLs) in the distal aspect of the medial femoral condyle (MFC) of young Thoroughbred horses are a source of controversy on presale radiographs. There is limited scientific evidence regarding the risk of progression and impact on future racing performance. Objective: To (1) identify the prevalence of MFC SCLs on sales repository radiographs in yearling and 2-year-old Thoroughbreds; (2) identify any association between grade of MFC SCL and future racing performance and (3) monitor changes in MFC SCL grades between yearling and 2-year-old sales. Methods: Prospective cohort ...
Zimmermann E, Distl O.Before the genomics era, heritability estimates were performed using pedigree data. Data collection for pedigree analysis is time consuming and holds the risk of incorrect or incomplete data. With the availability of SNP-based arrays, heritability can now be estimated based on genotyping data. We used SNP array and 1.6 million imputed genotype data with different minor allele frequency restrictions to estimate heritabilities for osteochondrosis dissecans in the fetlock, hock and stifle joints of 446 Hanoverian warmblood horses. SNP-based heritabilities were estimated using a genomic restricted...
Fjordbakk CT, Marques-Smith P.Interpretation of patellar ligament (PL) ultrasonography may be difficult, as hypoechoic or heterogenous echogenicity are common findings. Verifying suspected disease of equine PLs by histopathology is also problematic as descriptions of normal PL vascularity and histology are scarce. The current study describes the PL and infrapatellar fat pad (IFP) vascular pattern from computed tomography scans of barium perfused normal equine specimens (n = 8; age 10 days to 18 years), as well as routine histology to serve as a reference for future investigations into PL pathology and IFP disease. Re...
He H, Palm-Vlasak LS, Chen C, Banks SA, Biedrzycki AH.This study aims to quantitatively characterize the passive kinematics of the healthy, soft tissue-intact equine stifle to establish an objective foundation for providing insights into the etiology of stifle disorders and developing a possible surgical treatment for stifle degenerative disease. Methods: 5 whole-horse specimens. Methods: Reflective markers with intracortical bone pins and a motion capture system were used to investigate the stifle joint kinematics. Kinematics of 5 whole-horse specimens euthanized within 2 hours were calculated for internal/external rotation, adduction/abduction,...
Hayden LR, Stoker AM, Johnson PJ, McCracken MJ.To determine the following: (1) whether an irrigation solution that is hyperosmolar (HYPER) relative to synovial fluid decreases tissue extravasation during an arthroscopic protocol when compared to a relatively hypoosmolar solution, (2) the safety of a HYPER solution based on viability of joint tissues following joint irrigation, and (3) if the use of a HYPER solution decreases water content in stifle joint tissue. Methods: 8 adult horses. Methods: A prospective, blinded, randomized controlled trial was performed to compare lactated Ringer's solution (LRS; 273 mOsm/L) and a HYPER (600 mOsm/L)...
Soroko M, Górniak W, Godlewska M, Howell K.The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of training on body surface temperature over the joints in racehorses, measured by infrared thermography. The study involved monitoring of 14 Thoroughbred racehorses in 6 imaging sessions over a period of 3 months. Temperature measurements of the forelimb and hindlimb joints were made before and just after training. Joint temperature of limbs increased significantly after training. Environmental temperature had a statistically significant influence on surface temperature over the joints. The lowest surface temperatures were recorded over the ...
Hoey S, O'Sullivan J, Byrne J, Devine S, Toomey W, McAllister H, Skelly C.Osteochondrosis is a common condition of young horses where there is a failure of endochondral ossification, usually at predisposed sites. The estimated prevalence of osteochondrosis is 33-44%, with radiographic screening of yearlings being used to identify lesions. Radiography has two major limitations: poor sensitivity in detecting cartilaginous lesions and secondly, the exposure of the horse and personnel to ionising radiation. Ultrasonography allows imaging of the articular cartilage and subchondral bone margins and has been shown to be more sensitive in identifying osteochondrosis lesions...
Møller-Jensen M, Blomquist MH, Mortensen CL, Olsson IKC, Cuevas-Ramos G.The popliteal tendon and muscle are major stabilizers of the human and dog knee, more specifically the postero-lateral corner. Injury to this complex causes posterior knee pain, and it is generally associated with other injured structures such as the lateral collateral ligament, lateral meniscus, and/or the cranial cruciate ligament. The popliteal complex is poorly reported in the horse, and its specific function has not been determined. Nevertheless, it is likely that it is similar to that of other species, and that injury to it could have similar clinical repercussions. Lameness due to stifl...
Aßmann AD, Ohlerth S, Suárez Sánchez-Andráde J, Torgerson PR, Bischofberger AS.To determine the diagnostic performance of computed tomographic arthrography (CTA) and 3 Tesla magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for detecting artificial meniscal, meniscotibial ligament (MTL) lesions and cruciate ligament (CL) lesions in horses. Methods: Ex vivo controlled laboratory study. Methods: Nineteen stifles from adult horses. Methods: Stablike defects (n = 84) (16 mm long, 10 mm deep) were created in the menisci (n = 35), CLs (n = 24), and MTLs (n = 25) via arthroscopy prior to MRI and CTA (80 mL contrast at 85 mg/mL per joint). Two radiologists, unaware of the lesions...
Davis JG, García-López JM.To report the findings and long-term outcome of 76 sport horses with meniscal injury. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: Seventy-six horses with 93 meniscal injuries in 85 stifles. Methods: Medical records of sport horses diagnosed with meniscal injury during arthroscopy were reviewed. Owner follow up was obtained via telephone interview ≥1.5 years postoperatively. Preoperative and intraoperative findings, and postoperative treatments, were analyzed for potential association with return to athletic performance. Results: The medial meniscus was involved in 82.8% of cases, with gra...
Santosuosso E, Leguillette R, Vinardell T, Filho S, Massie S, McCrae P, Johnson S, Rolian C, David F.Swimming is used for rehabilitation and conditioning purposes in equine sports medicine. We described the swimming kinematics of the equine forelimbs in Part 1. The aim of Part 2 is to assess stifle, tarsus, and hind fetlock joints kinematics in swimming horses. The objectives were 1- to calculate and compare joint angles during swimming against passive mobilizations (PM), 2- to determine joints angular velocities during a swimming stride cycle. Methods: Eleven elite endurance horses were used to swim in a 100-meter straight pool. Underwater (swimming) and overground PM videos were recorded fr...
Norton NM, Santschi E, Fischer KJ.The etiology of subchondral bone cysts (SBCs) is not fully understood. Mechanical trauma and fluid pressure are two mechanisms believed to cause their formation and growth. The equine stifle joint provides a natural animal model for studying SBCs. Computed tomography images of an extended yearling cadaveric stifle joint were segmented using ScanIP to isolate bones and relevant soft tissues. Three model geometries were created to simulate cyst sizes of approximately 0.03 cm (C1), 0.5 cm (C2), and 1 cm (C3). A uniform pressure resulting in 3000 N force was applied at the proximal end of the fem...
Oláh T, Cai X, Michaelis JC, Madry H.The human knee is a complex joint, and affected by a variety of articular cartilage disorders. Large animal models are critical to model the complex disease mechanisms affecting a functional joint. Species-dependent differences highly affect the results of a pre-clinical study and need to be considered, necessitating specific knowledge not only of macroscopic and microscopic anatomical and pathological aspects, but also characteristics of their individual gait and joint movements. Methods: Literature search in Pubmed. Conclusions: This narrative review summarizes the most relevant anatomical s...
White JL, Salinas EY, Link JM, Hu JC, Athanasiou KA.A significant portion of equine lameness is localized to the stifle joint. Effective cartilage repair strategies are largely lacking, however, recent advances in surgical techniques, biomaterials, and cellular therapeutics have broadened the clinical strategies of cartilage repair. To date, no studies have been performed directly comparing neonatal and adult articular cartilage from the stifle across multiple sites. An understanding of the differences in properties between the therapeutic target cartilage (i.e., adult cartilage) as well as potential donor cartilage (i.e., neonatal cartilage) c...
Pérez-Nogués M, Derham A, Marmion J, True Baker W.Shallow lucencies less than 4 mm deep into the medial femoral condyle (MFC) are frequent in Thoroughbred horses undergoing screening sales radiographs. It is unclear if these shallow defects are precursors to larger cystic lesions or if they are fully developed defects that remodel into a flattened femoral condyle. Objective: To evaluate radiological lucencies of the MFC and their progression in size, in a cohort of Thoroughbred horses, ranging from 5 to 18 months of age and to report on the racing careers of these horses compared to their maternal siblings free of stifle pathology. Methods:...
Ramos S, Pinto A, Cardoso M, Alexandre N, Bettencourt E, Monteiro S, Gama LT.Radiographic prevalence and correlation of radiographic findings has not been performed in Lusitano Purebred horses. The aim of this study was to (1) evaluate the prevalence of primary osteoarthritis radiographic findings in Lusitano Purebred horses; (2) to assess correlations between radiographic findings in different joints of the same limb and different limbs; and (3) elucidate the effect of age in the radiographic findings. A radiographic protocol of the stifle, tarsi, fetlocks and distal limbs was done in 98 Lusitanos and the classification of the radiographs was performed using a 0-4 sc...
Kajabi AW, Casula V, Sarin JK, Ketola JH, Nykänen O, Te Moller NCR, Mancini IAD, Visser J, Brommer H, René van Weeren P, Malda J, Töyräs J....Chondral lesions lead to degenerative changes in the surrounding cartilage tissue, increasing the risk of developing post-traumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA). This study aimed to investigate the feasibility of quantitative magnetic resonance imaging (qMRI) for evaluation of articular cartilage in PTOA. Articular explants containing surgically induced and repaired chondral lesions were obtained from the stifle joints of seven Shetland ponies (14 samples). Three age-matched nonoperated ponies served as controls (six samples). The samples were imaged at 9.4 T. The measured qMRI parameters included ...
O'Neill HD, Bladon BM.Current arthroscopic approaches to the caudal pouches of the lateral femorotibial joint are challenging and risk iatrogenic nerve and cartilage injury. Objective: Describe an alternative arthroscopic approach to the caudal pouches of the lateral femorotibial joint in the horse and report intra-articular abnormalities observed during diagnostic stifle arthroscopy of these pouches. Methods: Descriptive cadaver anatomical and clinical study. Methods: An approach to the caudal pouches of the lateral femorotibial joint was developed during clinical surgery using an arthroscopic portal in the poplit...
Croxford AK, Parker RA, Burford JH, Lloyd D, Boswell JC, Hughes TK, Phillips TJ.Chondromalacia of the cranial medial femoral condyle (CMFC) is a potential cause of stifle lameness in adult horses. However, there is scant published evidence of either its occurrence or its clinical significance. Objective: To document the occurrence of CMFC seen during diagnostic arthroscopy in adult horses with stifle lameness and to investigate its prognostic significance. Methods: Retrospective cohort study. Methods: The records were reviewed of all horses with unilateral or bilateral lameness localised to the stifle that underwent diagnostic arthroscopy of the cranial medial femorotibia...
Frisbie DD, Cross MW, McIlwraith CW.Histological measurements of the thickness of non-calcified and calcified cartilage, as well as the subchondral bone plate in five locations on the femoral trochlea and medial femoral condyles of species were used in preclinical studies of articular cartilage and compared to those of the human knee. Cadaver specimens were obtained of six human knees, as well as six equine, six goat, six dog, six sheep and six rabbit stifle joints (the animal equivalent of the human knee). Specimens were taken from the lateral trochlear ridge, medial trochlear ridge and medial femoral condyle. After histopathol...
McIlwraith CW, Frisbie DD, Rodkey WG, Kisiday JD, Werpy NM, Kawcak CE, Steadman JR.This study evaluated intra-articular injection of bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) to augment healing with microfracture compared with microfracture alone. Methods: Ten horses (aged 2.5 to 5 years) had 1-cm2 defects arthroscopically created on both medial femoral condyles of the stifle joint (analogous to the human knee). Defects were debrided to subchondral bone followed by microfracture. One month later, 1 randomly selected medial femorotibial joint in each horse received an intra-articular injection of either 20 × 10(6) BMSCs with 22 mg of hyaluronan or 22 mg of hyalurona...
Ferris DJ, Frisbie DD, Kisiday JD, McIlwraith CW, Hague BA, Major MD, Schneider RK, Zubrod CJ, Kawcak CE, Goodrich LR.To report outcome of horses with femorotibial lesions (meniscal, cartilage or ligamentous) treated with surgery and intra-articular administration of autologous bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs). Methods: Prospective case series. Methods: Horses (n = 33). Methods: Inclusion criteria included horses that had lameness localized to the stifle by diagnostic anesthesia, exploratory stifle arthroscopy and subsequent intra-articular administration of autologous BMSCs. Case details and follow-up were gathered from medical records, owner, trainer or veterinarian. Outcome was defined as...
Broeckx S, Suls M, Beerts C, Vandenberghe A, Seys B, Wuertz-Kozak K, Duchateau L, Spaas JH.Cell-based therapies, such as treatments with mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and platelet-rich plasma (PRP) are thought to have beneficial effects on the clinical outcome of orthopedic injuries, but very few animal studies with large sample size are published so far. Therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the safety and report the clinical outcome of allogenic, immature or chondrogenic induced MSCs in combination with PRP for the treatment of degenerative joint disease (DJD) in 165 horses. MSCs and PRP were isolated from a 6-year-old donor horse and transplanted either in their native s...
Singer ER, Barnes J, Saxby F, Murray JK.Two related studies on injuries sustained by event horses during competition and during training are reported. During the cross-country phase of competition, the most common injuries were lacerations and abrasions to the carpus and stifle. Superficial digital flexor tendonitis and exertional rhabdomyolysis were significantly more common during Cours Complete Internationale (CCI) competitions compared to one-day event (ODE) competitions. The difference in injury types at ODEs and CCI competitions probably relates to the increased athletic demands of the CCI and the closer veterinary observation...
Cook CR.Musculoskeletal ultrasound is a rapidly growing field within veterinary medicine. Ultrasound for musculoskeletal disorders has been commonly used in equine and human medicine and is becoming more commonly performed in small animal patients due to the increase in the recognition of soft tissue injuries. Ultrasound is widely available, cost-effective, but technically difficult to learn. Advantages of musculoskeletal ultrasound are the opposite limb is commonly used for comparison to evaluate symmetry of the tendinous structures and the ease of repeat examinations to assess healing. The article d...
Dik KJ, Enzerink E, van Weeren PR.In a longitudinal study the hocks and stifles of Dutch Warmblood foals were radiographed at age 1 month and subsequently at intervals of 4 weeks. Forty-three foals were radiographed until age 5 months and 19 foals until age 11 months. The chance for the development of osteochondrosis was enhanced by using only offspring from diseased sires with radiographically proven OC at either the intermediate ridge of the distal tibia or the lateral ridge of the femoral trochlea. The radiographic appearances of the intermediate ridge of the distal tibia, the distal aspect of the lateral trochlear ridge of...
Dias IR, Viegas CA, Carvalho PP.Namely, in the last two decades, large animal models - small ruminants (sheep and goats), pigs, dogs and horses - have been used to study the physiopathology and to develop new therapeutic procedures to treat human clinical osteoarthritis. For that purpose, cartilage and/or osteochondral defects are generally performed in the stifle joint of selected large animal models at the condylar and trochlear femoral areas where spontaneous regeneration should be excluded. Experimental animal care and protection legislation and guideline documents of the US Food and Drug Administration, the American S...
Martin BB, Klide AM.The diagnosis of back pain is often a diagnosis of exclusion of other problems in the face of poor performance. It requires careful observation, thought, an open mind, and experience. The signs of back pain can be extremely variable and range from subtle to obvious. Obvious forelimb or hind limb lameness is not usually a sign of back pain. The most common differential diagnosis may be back pain secondary to degenerative joint disease of the hocks, fetlocks, or stifle. These diseases can mimic signs of back pain including lack of impulsion, shortening of the stride length, and change in the str...
González-Fernández ML, Pérez-Castrillo S, Sánchez-Lázaro JA, Prieto-Fernández JG, López-González ME, Lobato-Pérez S, Colaço BJ, Olivera ER....OBJECTIVE To assess the ability to regenerate an equine meniscus by use of a collagen repair patch (scaffold) seeded with mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) derived from bone marrow (BM) or adipose tissue (AT). SAMPLE 6 female Hispano-Breton horses between 4 and 7 years of age; MSCs from BM and AT were obtained for the in vitro experiment, and the horses were subsequently used for the in vivo experiment. PROCEDURES Similarities and differences between MSCs derived from BM or AT were investigated in vitro by use of cell culture. In vivo assessment involved use of a meniscus defect and implantation o...
Schuurman SO, Kersten W, Weijs WA.Horses spend much of their life standing, and they are believed to be able to keep their limbs straight without muscular effort. We tested the hypothesis that the stifle (knee) and hock (tarsal) joints could be stabilized merely with the help of a passive lock mechanism whereby the patella is secured behind a hook, formed by the medial femoral trochlea. In anaesthetized animals and isolated limbs the stifle and hock flex readily under compression. In isolated limbs this collapse was prevented by a small force applied to the patella, mimicking the action of the vastus medialis muscle. In vivo, ...
Kremer A, Ribitsch I, Reboredo J, Dürr J, Egerbacher M, Jenner F, Walles H.Meniscal injuries are the most frequently encountered soft tissue injuries in the equine stifle joint. Due to the inherent limited repair potential of meniscal tissue, meniscal injuries do not only affect the meniscus itself but also lead to impaired joint homeostasis and secondary osteoarthritis. The presented study compares 3D coculture constructs of primary equine mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) and meniscus cells (MC) seeded on three different scaffolds-a cell-laden collagen type I hydrogel (Col I gel), a tissue-derived small intestinal matrix scaffold (SIS-muc) and a combination thereof-for ...
Baker GJ, Moustafa MA, Boero MJ, Foreman JH, Wilson DA.The caudal cruciate ligament assists the medial femorotibial ligament in supporting the medial aspect of the femorotibial joint. It also limits the outward rotation of the tibia during weight bearing. In two lame horses tearing of the caudal portion of the femoral attachment of the caudal cruciate ligament was recorded together with cracking and tearing of the medial meniscus. In one case, synovitis and restrictive fibrous periarthritis were the sequelae of secondary stifle sepsis.
Gupte CM, Bull AM, Murray R, Amis AA.The purpose of this study was to investigate the presence, position and relative sizes of the meniscofemoral ligaments (MFL) in three quadrupeds and humans and relate these to the caudal slope of the lateral tibial plateau. Canine, ovine and equine stifles and human knees were dissected to identify the presence of MFLs, their obliquity in relation to the caudal cruciate ligaments (CCL), the relative size and shape of the MFLs compared with the CCL, the points of femoral attachment of the MFLs and CCL, and the distance between the MFLs and CCL at their midpoints. The lateral tibial condyle was ...
Bodo G, Hangody L, Modis L, Hurtig M.To describe treatment of equine subchondral bone cysts (SBCs) by reconstruction of the articular surface with osteochondral grafts. Methods: Case series of horses with SBCs unresponsive to conservative therapy. Methods: Eleven horses (1-12 years). Methods: SBCs were identified in 4 locations: medial femoral condyle (5 horses), lateral femoral condyle (1), distal epiphysis of the metacarpus (4), or metatarsus (1). Osteochondral autograft transplantation (mosaic arthroplasty) was performed, taking grafts from the abaxial border of the medial femoral trochlea of the unaffected limb. Graft implant...
Bolam CJ, Hurtig MB, Cruz A, McEwen BJ.To study osteoarthritis in the equine medial femorotibial (MFT) joint after a single traumatic injury. Methods: 10 mature horses. Methods: In vitro explant cultures were used to determine injury threshold for stifle joint cartilage. Contusive impacts were applied to the medial femoral condyle (MFC), and horses were followed for 84 (n = 5) and 180 days (5). Synovial fluid samples were collected every 14 days for determination of sulphated glycosaminoglycan (sGAG) concentrations. Radiographic and lameness evaluations were performed. Gross and histologic descriptions, and immunohistochemistry, ca...
Kane AJ, Park RD, McIlwraith CW, Rantanen NW, Morehead JP, Bramlage LR.Radiography in presale examinations of TB yearlings has become standard practice in recent years. Objective: To describe the prevalence and distribution of radiographic changes in the fetlocks, carpi, tarsi, stifles and fore feet of Thoroughbred yearlings in central Kentucky when these joints were examined as part of routine pre- and post sale evaluations. Methods: Horses subjected to radiographs included the fore (n = 1127) and hind (n = 1102) fetlocks, carpi (n = 1130), tarsi (n = 1101), stifles (n = 660) and fore feet (n = 300). Radiographic changes were categorised by location and type of ...
Kajabi AW, Casula V, Sarin JK, Ketola JH, Nykänen O, Te Moller NCR, Mancini IAD, Visser J, Brommer H, René van Weeren P, Malda J, Töyräs J....Chondral lesions lead to degenerative changes in the surrounding cartilage tissue, increasing the risk of developing post-traumatic osteoarthritis (PTOA). This study aimed to investigate the feasibility of quantitative magnetic resonance imaging (qMRI) for evaluation of articular cartilage in PTOA. Articular explants containing surgically induced and repaired chondral lesions were obtained from the stifle joints of seven Shetland ponies (14 samples). Three age-matched nonoperated ponies served as controls (six samples). The samples were imaged at 9.4 T. The measured qMRI parameters included ...
Walmsley JP.The accuracy of the diagnosis of ligamentous and meniscal injuries in the equine stifle has improved significantly in the last 20 years. There are, however, significant limitations in the diagnosis of stifle injuries because of the size and anatomy of the equine stifle. Treatment of soft tissue injuries to the equine stifle has been empirical,with only a few large case studies for specific conditions of stifle ligaments and menisci and only retrospective case studies of the outcome of treatment. This article describes the diagnosis and treatment of ligamentous and meniscal injuries in the equi...
Back W, Schamhardt HC, Savelberg HH, van den Bogert AJ, Bruin G, Hartman W, Barneveld A.Kinematic data of the equine hind limb are presented graphically and related to functional aspects of the hind limb in locomotion. The trot of 24 two-year-old Dutch Warmblood horses was recorded at 4 m/s on a high-speed treadmill using kinematic analysis equipment. Joint angle-time, angle-angle, stick and marker diagrams were used to present graphically the data following standardised procedures. As the kinematic data were expressed with reference to the joint angles of the horse standing squarely and were time-standardised to the duration of the stride cycle, mean joint curves for the total g...
Kane AJ, McIlwraith CW, Park RD, Rantanen NW, Morehead JP, Bramlage LR.Although the radiographic examination of yearlings has become commonplace at some large Thoroughbred sales, there are few data to support the decisions facing veterinarians who are asked to evaluate future racing potential. Objective: To identify radiographic changes in the fetlocks, proximal sesamoid bones, carpi, tarsi, stifles and fore feet of Thoroughbred yearlings associated with future racing performance during ages 2 and 3 years. Methods: Radiographs from routine pre- and post sale examinations of 1162 yearlings were used to identify individual radiographic changes in sale yearlings. St...
Frazer LL, Santschi EM, Fischer KJ.Subchondral lucency (SCL), also referred to as subchondral bone cysts, can cause clinical problems in horses and humans. In humans, SCLs occur in youths and adolescents [1] due to mechanical factors (often related to athletics) and in skeletally mature individuals secondary to osteoarthritis (OA). In horses, SCL most commonly occurs in the medial femoral condyle (MFC) of growing horses (without OA), and causes lameness. The cause of equine SCL is debated, but bone trauma due to overload is the likely mechanism. Investigating the biomechanics of the healthy and cystic MFC is important to unders...
Oláh T, Cai X, Michaelis JC, Madry H.The human knee is a complex joint, and affected by a variety of articular cartilage disorders. Large animal models are critical to model the complex disease mechanisms affecting a functional joint. Species-dependent differences highly affect the results of a pre-clinical study and need to be considered, necessitating specific knowledge not only of macroscopic and microscopic anatomical and pathological aspects, but also characteristics of their individual gait and joint movements. Methods: Literature search in Pubmed. Conclusions: This narrative review summarizes the most relevant anatomical s...
Semevolos SA, Nixon AJ, Brower-Toland BD.To determine molecular changes in the expression of insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and transforming growth factor-beta1 (TGF-beta1) in horses with osteochondrosis, and to characterize expression of matrix aggrecan and collagen types I, II, and X in articular cartilage of affected joints. Methods: Articular cartilage from affected stifle or shoulder joints of 11 horses with naturally acquired osteochondrosis and corresponding joints of 11 clinically normal horses. Methods: Harvested specimens were snap frozen in liquid nitrogen, and total RNA was isolated. Specimens were fixed in 4% paraf...
Cohen JM, Richardson DW, McKnight AL, Ross MW, Boston RC.To (1) examine the outcome in horses with osteoarthritis or intra-articular soft tissue injuries of the stifle after arthroscopic exploration and debridement and (2) to determine any imaging or surgical findings that may influence prognosis. Methods: Case series. Methods: Horses (n=44) with lameness referable to the stifle, diagnosed with osteoarthritis, meniscal tears, or other intra-articular soft tissue injuries based on arthroscopic examination. Methods: Medical records of horses with stifle lameness that had arthroscopic exploration were reviewed. Horses with osteochondrosis lesions, intr...
Nykänen O, Sarin JK, Ketola JH, Leskinen H, Te Moller NCR, Tiitu V, Mancini IAD, Visser J, Brommer H, van Weeren PR, Malda J, Töyräs J, Nissi MJ.To investigate the potential of quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM) and T2* relaxation time mapping to determine mechanical and structural properties of articular cartilage via univariate and multivariate analysis. Samples were obtained from a cartilage repair study, in which surgically induced full-thickness chondral defects in the stifle joints of seven Shetland ponies caused post-traumatic osteoarthritis (14 samples). Control samples were collected from non-operated joints of three animals (6 samples). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was performed at 9.4 T, using a 3-D multi-echo gr...
Nelson BB, Kawcak CE, Goodrich LR, Werpy NM, Valdés-Martínez A, McIlwraith CW.The femorotibial joints are a common source of lameness in Western performance horses. The objective of this prospective study was to compare the radiography, ultrasonography, computed tomographic arthrography (CTA), and arthroscopy findings in horses with lameness localized to the femorotibial joints. Twenty-five stifles in 24 horses were included and were evaluated with all four of these diagnostic methods. Defects detected in femorotibial joint structures were compared between diagnostic methods using a McNemar's test to evaluate for disagreement. Cranial medial meniscotibial desmopathy was...
Goodrich LR, Nixon AJ, Fubini SL, Ducharme NG, Fortier LA, Warnick LD, Ludders JW.To determine whether preoperative epidural administration of morphine and detomidine would decrease postoperative lameness after bilateral stifle arthroscopy in horses. Methods: Prospective clinical controlled study. Methods: Eight adult horses that had bilateral arthroscopic procedures, including drilling of cartilage and subchondral bone within the femoropatellar joints. Methods: Horses were randomly separated into 2 groups. Preoperatively, 4 horses were administered a combination of epidural morphine (0.2 mg/kg) and detomidine (30 microg/kg), and 4 horses were administered an equivalent vol...
Adrian AM, Barrett MF, Werpy NM, Kawcak CE, Chapman PL, Goodrich LR.To evaluate and compare the diagnostic capability of arthroscopy and ultrasonography for the detection of pathological change in equine stifle joints. Although descriptions of the arthroscopic and ultrasonographic boundaries of the normal femorotibial joint exist, there are few examples in the literature comparing the pathological changes observed with each imaging modality. Objective: To evaluate and compare arthroscopic and ultrasonographic examinations for characterising pathological change in the stifle joint. To describe how the results of arthroscopic and ultrasonographic examinations ma...
Daglish J, Frisbie DD, Selberg KT, Barrett MF.High field magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is increasingly used for horses with suspected stifle disease, however there is limited available information on normal imaging anatomy and potential incidental findings. The aim of this prospective, anatomic study was to develop an optimized high field MRI protocol for evaluation of the equine stifle and provide detailed descriptions of the normal MRI appearance of the stifle soft tissues, using ultrasound and gross pathological examination as comparison tests. Nine cadaver limbs were acquired from clinically normal horses. Stifles were evaluated ul...
