Vaccine development in horses involves the creation and refinement of immunizations to protect equine populations from infectious diseases. This process includes identifying antigens, formulating vaccines, and evaluating their safety and efficacy through clinical trials. Vaccines stimulate the horse's immune system to recognize and combat specific pathogens, thereby reducing the incidence and severity of diseases. Common equine vaccines target diseases such as equine influenza, tetanus, and West Nile virus. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the methodologies, challenges, and advancements in vaccine development for equine health.
Livengood JL, Lanka S, Maddox C, Tewari D.Streptococcus equi subspecies equi (S. equi), the causative agent of strangles, is an important equine pathogen. Strangles is a highly contagious disease and a commercial modified live vaccine (MLV) is used for protection, which although effective, may also result in clinical signs of the disease. A rapid means to differentiate between the MLV and wild-type infection is crucial for quarantine release and limiting the disease spread. This study describes the use of a pyrosequencing assay targeting a single nucleotide deletion upstream of the SzPSe gene to distinguish between the wild-type and v...
Liu ZQ, Xia J, Wang GL, Kuermanali N.Hyalomma asiaticum tick, an important ectozoic parasite causes tickle, pain, anemia, weight loss, and paralysis in its hosts, which include humans, cattle, sheep, horses, camels, and hares. The 4D8 gene can be a potential vaccine candidate antigen for H. asiaticum. In the present study, we cloned and expressed the 4D8 gene of H. asiaticum from Xinjiang Province. Primers were designed according to the H. asiaticum tick 4D8 gene sequence available in GenBank. The gene was amplified by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and the fragments were subcloned into the prokaryotic expression...
Fougerolle S, Legrand L, Garrett D, Birand I, Foursin M, D'Ablon X, Bayssat P, Newton RJ, Pronost S, Paillot R.Numerous equine influenza (EI) epizooties are reported worldwide. EI vaccination is the most efficient methods of prevention. However, not all horses develop protective immunity after immunisation, increasing the risk of infection and transmission. This field study aimed to understand the poor response to primary EI vaccination. The EI antibody response was measured in 174 Thoroughbred foals set in 3 stud farms (SF#1 to SF#3) over a 2years period. All foals were immunised with a commercial recombinant canarypox-based EI vaccine. Sera were tested by single radial haemolysis against the A/equine...
David S, Abraham AM.Since the isolation of West Nile virus (WNV) in 1937, in Uganda, it has spread globally, causing significant morbidity and mortality. While birds serve as amplifier hosts, mosquitoes of the Culex genus function as vectors. Humans and horses are dead end hosts. The clinical manifestations of West Nile infection in humans range from asymptomatic illness to West Nile encephalitis. Methods: The laboratory offers an array of tests, the preferred method being detection of RNA and serum IgM for WNV, which, if detected, confirms the clinical diagnosis. Although no definitive antiviral therapy and vacc...
Hannaman D, Dupuy LC, Ellefsen B, Schmaljohn CS.Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV), a mosquito-borne alphavirus, causes periodic epizootics in equines and is a recognized biological defense threat for humans. There are currently no FDA-licensed vaccines against VEEV. We developed a candidate DNA vaccine expressing the E3-E2-6K-E1 genes of VEEV (pWRG/VEE) and performed a Phase 1 clinical study to assess the vaccine's safety, reactogenicity, tolerability, and immunogenicity when administered by intramuscular (IM) or intradermal (ID) electroporation (EP) using the Ichor Medical Systems TriGrid™ Delivery System. Subjects in IM-EP gro...
Ireland JL, McGorum BC, Proudman CJ, Newton JR.Without an experimental model of equine grass sickness (EGS), a randomised controlled field trial (RCT) represents the only method of evaluating the efficacy of Clostridium botulinum type C vaccination in preventing naturally occurring disease. Clinical trial feasibility is an important aspect of preliminary work undertaken prior to initiating RCTs, estimating parameters that are important for study design. This cross-sectional study aimed to assess the feasibility of conducting a nationwide RCT of a candidate vaccine for EGS based on responses from a sample of British equine veterinary practi...
Peel AJ, Field HE, Reid PA, Plowright RK, Broder CC, Skerratt LF, Hayman DT, Restif O, Taylor M, Martin G, Crameri G, Smith I, Baker M, Marsh GA....No abstract available
Sánchez-Matamoros A, Nieto-Pelegrín E, Beck C, Rivera-Arroyo B, Lecollinet S, Sailleau C, Zientara S, Sánchez-Vizcaíno JM.African horse sickness (AHS) is considered a fatal re-emergent vector-borne disease of horses. In the absence of any effective treatment for AHS, vaccination remains the most effective form of disease control. The new generation of vaccines, such as one based on purified, inactivated AHS virus (AHSV, serotype 4), which does not induce antibodies against non-structural protein 3 (NS3), enables the development of diagnostic methods that differentiate infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA assays). As detecting AHS in AHSV-free countries may lead to restrictions on international animal movements ...
Nemoto M, Bannai H, Tsujimura K, Yamanaka T, Kondo T.A Getah virus strain isolated during an outbreak in racehorses in Japan in 2014 (14-I-605) was compared with the vaccine strain isolated in 1978 (MI-110). A comparison of the genome sequences of these strains revealed seven amino acid substitutions in non-structural protein 3, and one or two substitutions in each of other non-structural proteins. In contrast, the structural proteins were highly conserved (99.8-99.9 % amino acid sequence identity). Horse antisera raised against the MI-110 strain showed similar virus-neutralization titers against both MI-110 and 14-I-605 strains (512 and 256, r...
Giles C, Ndi O, Barton MD, Vanniasinkam T.Rhodococcus equi is a respiratory pathogen which primarily infects foals and is endemic on farms around the world with 50% mortality and 80% morbidity in affected foals. Unless detected early and treated appropriately the disease can be fatal. Currently, there is no vaccine available to prevent this disease. For decades researchers have endeavoured to develop an effective vaccine to no avail. In this study a novel human adenoviral vector vaccine for R. equi was developed and tested in the mouse model. This vaccine generated a strong antibody and cytokine response and clearance of R. equi was d...
Alves Beuttemmüller E, Woodward A, Rash A, Dos Santos Ferraz LE, Fernandes Alfieri A, Alfieri AA, Elton D.An extensive outbreak of equine influenza occurred across multiple countries in South America during 2012. The epidemic was first reported in Chile then spread to Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina, where both vaccinated and unvaccinated animals were affected. In Brazil, infections were widespread within 3months of the first reported cases. Affected horses included animals vaccinated with outdated vaccine antigens, but also with the OIE-recommended Florida clade 1 strain South Africa/4/03. Methods: Equine influenza virus strains from infected horses were isolated in eggs, then a representative stra...
Field HE.Hendra virus causes acute and highly fatal infection in horses and humans. Pteropid bats (flying-foxes) are the natural host of the virus, with age and species being risk factors for infection. Urine is the primary route of excretion in flying-foxes, with viral RNA more frequently detected in Pteropus alecto and P. conspicillatus than other species. Infection prevalence in flying-foxes can vary between and within years, with a winter peak of excretion occurring in some regions. Vertical transmission and recrudescing infection has been reported in flying-foxes, but horizontal transmission is ev...
Kinsley R, Scott SD, Daly JM.Serological assays provide an indirect route for the recognition of infectious agents via the detection of antibodies against the infectious agent of interest within serum. Serological assays for equine influenza A virus can be applied for different purposes: diagnosing infections; subtyping isolates; surveillance of circulating strains; and to evaluate the efficacy of vaccines before they reach the market. Haemagglutination inhibition (HI) and single radial haemolysis (SRH) assays are most commonly used in the equine field. This review outlines how both these assays together with virus neutra...
Jonsdottir S, Svansson V, Stefansdottir SB, Schüpbach G, Rhyner C, Marti E, Torsteinsdottir S.Insect bite hypersensitivity (IBH) is an IgE-mediated dermatitis of horses caused by bites of Culicoides insects, not indigenous to Iceland. Horses born in Iceland and exported to Culicoides-rich areas are frequently affected with IBH. The aims of the study were to compare immunization with recombinant allergens using the adjuvant aluminum hydroxide (Alum) alone or combined with monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA) for development of a preventive immunization against IBH. Twelve healthy Icelandic horses were vaccinated intralymphatically three times with 10 μg each of four recombinant Culicoides nub...
Wang XF, Lin YZ, Li Q, Liu Q, Zhao WW, Du C, Chen J, Wang X, Zhou JH.The equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) vaccine is the only attenuated lentiviral vaccine applied on a large scale that has been shown to be effective in controlling the prevalence of EIA in China. This vaccine was developed by successive passaging of a field-isolated virulent strain in different hosts and cultivated cells. To explore the molecular basis for the phenotype alteration of this vaccine strain, we systematically analyzed its genomic evolution during vaccine development. Results: Sequence analysis revealed that the genetic distance between the wild-type strain and six representati...
Rocha JN, Cohen ND, Bordin AI, Brake CN, Giguère S, Coleman MC, Alaniz RC, Lawhon SD, Mwangi W, Pillai SD.There is currently no licensed vaccine that protects foals against Rhodococcus equi-induced pneumonia. Oral administration of live, virulent R. equi to neonatal foals has been demonstrated to protect against subsequent intrabronchial challenge with virulent R. equi. Electron beam (eBeam)-inactivated R. equi are structurally intact and have been demonstrated to be immunogenic when administered orally to neonatal foals. Thus, we investigated whether eBeam inactivated R. equi could protect foals against developing pneumonia after experimental infection with live, virulent R. equi. Foals (n = 8) w...
Kang BK, Hwang JM, Moon H, Han SY, Kim JM, Yang DK, Park BK, Song D.The Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) genotype circulating in Korea has changed from G3 to G1. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to compare the antigenic relationship between the two genotypes by using antibody tests. Methods: Blood samples from 42 sows and 216 horses were collected, and their seroprevalence was monitored using the hemagglutination inhibition and virus neutralization tests. Antisera against JEV G1 and G3 were isolated and prepared from guinea pigs. The cross-reactivity of these two viruses was then compared using the neutralizing antibody test. Results: We found that th...
Kim H, Lee YK, Kang SC, Han BK, Choi KM.Various new technologies have been applied for developing vaccines against various animal diseases. Virus-like particle (VLP) vaccine technology was used for manufacturing the porcine circovirus type 2 and RNA particle vaccines based on an alphavirus vector for porcine epidemic diarrhea (PED). Although VLP is classified as a killed-virus vaccine, because its structure is similar to the original virus, it can induce long-term and cell-mediated immunity. The RNA particle vaccine used a Venezuela equine encephalitis (VEE) virus gene as a vector. The VEE virus partial gene can be substituted with ...
Liu Q, Ma J, Wang XF, Xiao F, Li LJ, Zhang JE, Lin YZ, Du C, He XJ, Wang X, Zhou JH.The live equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) vaccine strain EIAVDLV121 was developed by in vitro attenuation of a virulent strain, EIAVLN40, in the 1970s, and it has been demonstrated to induce protective immunity under laboratory and natural EIAV infection conditions. The detailed biological features of this attenuated virus remain to be further investigated. Experimental inoculation with EIAVDLV121 did not result in clinical symptoms even with immunosuppressive treatment in our previous studies. Here, we further investigated whether the replication of the vaccine strain EIAVDLV121 in exper...
Thompson MK, Fridy PC, Keegan S, Chait BT, Fenyö D, Rout MP.Antibodies made in large animals are integral to many biomedical research endeavors. Domesticated herd animals like goats, sheep, donkeys, horses and camelids all offer distinct advantages in antibody production. However, their cost of use is often prohibitive, especially where poor antigen response is commonplace; choosing a non-responsive animal can set a research program back or even prevent experiments from moving forward entirely. Over the course of production of antibodies from llamas, we found that some animals consistently produced a higher humoral antibody response than others, even t...
Mondal SP, Cook RF, Chelvarajan RL, Henney PJ, Timoney PJ, Balasuriya UB.Strains of equine arteritis virus (EAV) differ in their virulence phenotypes, causing anywhere from subclinical infections to severe disease in horses. Here, we describe the in silico design and de novo synthesis of a full-length infectious cDNA clone of the horse-adapted virulent Bucyrus strain (VBS) of EAV encoding mCherry along with in vitro characterization of the progeny virions (EAV sVBSmCherry) in terms of host-cell tropism, replicative capacity and stability of the mCherry coding sequences following sequential passage in cell culture. The relative stability of the mCherry sequence duri...
Back H, Berndtsson LT, Gröndahl G, Ståhl K, Pringle J, Zohari S.Equine Influenza Virus (EIV) is a major cause of respiratory disease in horses and the virus constantly undergoes antigenic drift. Here we characterize and describe the HA1 and the NA genes of H3N8 within samples obtained from outbreaks in Sweden during November-December 2011. Both clade 1 and clade 2 viruses of the Florida sublineage were identified. The index case of clade 2 was transported to Sweden from Spain through the Netherlands, whereas the clade 1 had its origin from a Swedish stud farm. The clade 1 virus was efficiently spread between training yards by unvaccinated young horses, but...
Aréchiga-Ceballos N, Aguilar-Setién A.Summary Alphaviral equine encephalomyelitis is a mosquito-borne infection that causes severe neurological disease and fatalities in horses and humans in the Americas. Consequently, the equine alphaviruses (Eastern, Western and Venezuelan) are of considerable concern worldwide and are notifiable to the World Organisation for Animal Health. In addition, these diseases are considered a potent potential biological weapon, emphasising the need to develop an effective vaccine. Alphaviral equine encephalomyelitis is caused by Eastern equine encephalomyelitis virus (EEEV), Western equine encephalomyel...
Guthrie AJ, Coetzee P, Martin DP, Lourens CW, Venter EH, Weyer CT, Joone C, le Grange M, Harper CK, Howell PG, MacLachlan NJ.This is a report of the complete genome sequences of plaque-selected isolates of each of the four virus strains included in a South African commercial tetravalent African horse sickness attenuated live virus vaccine.
Pavulraj S, Bera BC, Joshi A, Anand T, Virmani M, Vaid RK, Shanmugasundaram K, Gulati BR, Rajukumar K, Singh R, Misri J, Singh RK, Tripathi BN....Equine influenza viruses (EIV)-H3N8 continue to circulate in equine population throughout the world. They evolve by the process of antigenic drift that leads to substantial change in the antigenicity of the virus, thereby necessitating substitution of virus strain in the vaccines. This requires frequent testing of the new vaccines in the in vivo system; however, lack of an appropriate laboratory animal challenge model for testing protective efficacy of equine influenza vaccine candidates hinders the screening of new vaccines and other therapeutic approaches. In the present investigation, BALB/...
Schellenbacher C, Shafti-Keramat S, Huber B, Fink D, Brandt S, Kirnbauer R.The consistent and specific presence of Equus caballus papillomavirus type 2 (EcPV2) DNA and mRNA in equine genital squamous cell carcinoma (gSCC) is suggestive of an etiological role in tumor development. To further validate this concept, EcPV2-neutralizing serum antibody titers were determined by an EcPV2 pseudovirion (PsV) neutralization assay. Furthermore, an EcPV2 L1 virus-like particle (VLP)-based vaccine was generated and its prophylactic efficacy evaluated in vivo. All 6/6 gSCC-affected, but only 3/20 tumor-free age-matched animals revealed EcPV2-neutralizing serum antibody titers by P...
Perglione CO, Gildea S, Rimondi A, Miño S, Vissani A, Carossino M, Cullinane A, Barrandeguy M.In 2012, equine influenza (EI) virus was confirmed as the cause of outbreaks of respiratory disease in horses throughout South America. In Uruguay and Argentina, hundreds of vaccinated thoroughbred horses in training and racing facilities were clinically affected. Objective: To characterise the EI viruses detected during the outbreak in Uruguay and Argentina. Methods: Virus was detected in nasopharyngeal swabs by a pan-reactive influenza type A real-time RT-PCR. The nucleotide sequence of the HA1 gene was determined and analysed phylogenetically using mega 5 software. Amino acid sequences alig...
Pretorius A, Faber FE, van Kleef M.Development of African horsesickness (AHS) subunit vaccines will have to include a rational approach that uses knowledge of how the virus interacts with the host immune system. The global in vivo immune response induced by attenuated AHSV serotype 4 in horses was characterised using transcriptome sequencing. PBMC were collected with 24h intervals for four days after inoculation and four days after a second boost, 21 days later. Transcriptome data were normalised to the day 0 naïve transcriptome and up- or down-regulated immune genes identified using the CLC workbench. Peak expression was obse...
Chaintoutis SC, Diakakis N, Papanastassopoulou M, Banos G, Dovas CI.Although experimental data regarding cross-protection of horse West Nile virus (WNV) vaccines against lineage 2 infections exist, the cross-protective efficacy of these vaccines under field conditions has not been demonstrated. This study was conducted to evaluate the capability of an inactivated lineage 1 vaccine (Equip WNV) to protect against natural infections from the Nea Santa-Greece-2010 lineage 2 strain. In total, 185 WNV-seronegative horses in Thessaloniki, Greece, were selected during 2 consecutive years (2011 and 2012); 140 were immunized, and 45 were used as controls. Horses were ex...
Carvelli A, Nielsen SS, Paillot R, Broglia A, Kohnle L.Equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) can affect the entire equine sector in EU, and the large outbreak reported in 2021 in Spain drew attention to the needs of the European Commission for scientific advice for the assessment of EHV-1 infection within the framework of Animal Health Law. EHV-1 is considered endemic in the EU; its main risk is linked to the characteristic of producing latent life-long infections. These can reactivate producing clinical disease, which can include respiratory, abortive and possibly fatal neurological forms. From the epidemiological and genomic viewpoint, there are no speci...
Na W, Yeom M, Yuk H, Moon H, Kang B, Song D.This study provides information regarding vaccine research and the epidemiology of influenza virus in neglected hosts (horses and dogs). Equine influenza virus (EIV) causes a highly contagious disease in horses and other equids, and outbreaks have occurred worldwide. EIV has resulted in costly damage to the horse industry and has the ability of cross the host species barrier from horses to dogs. Canine influenza is a virus of equine or avian origin and infects companion animals that live in close contact with humans; this results in possible exposure to the seasonal epizootic influenza virus. ...
Chaintoutis SC, Diakakis N, Papanastassopoulou M, Banos G, Dovas CI.Although experimental data regarding cross-protection of horse West Nile virus (WNV) vaccines against lineage 2 infections exist, the cross-protective efficacy of these vaccines under field conditions has not been demonstrated. This study was conducted to evaluate the capability of an inactivated lineage 1 vaccine (Equip WNV) to protect against natural infections from the Nea Santa-Greece-2010 lineage 2 strain. In total, 185 WNV-seronegative horses in Thessaloniki, Greece, were selected during 2 consecutive years (2011 and 2012); 140 were immunized, and 45 were used as controls. Horses were ex...
Sapsutthipas S, Leong PK, Akesowan S, Pratanaphon R, Tan NH, Ratanabanangkoon K.Snake envenomation has been estimated to affect 1.8 million people annually with about 94,000 deaths mostly in poor tropical countries. Specific antivenoms are the only rational and effective therapy for these cases. Efforts are being made to produce effective, affordable and sufficient antivenoms for these victims. The immunization process, which has rarely been described in detail, is one step that needs to be rigorously studied and improved especially with regard to the production of polyspecific antisera. The polyspecific nature of therapeutic antivenom could obviate the need to identify t...
Fitzpatrick DR, Studdert MJ.The specificity of selected immune responses to equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) and type 4 (EHV-4) was examined in 3 colostrum-deprived specific-pathogen-free foals. Single foals were vaccinated with inactivated EHV-1, inactivated EHV-4, or control cell lysate plus adjuvant followed by successive intranasal challenge exposures with EHV-1 and EHV-4 or with EHV-4 and EHV-1. Vaccination with inactivated virus preparations elicited cellular immune responses and antibody which were augmented by subsequent challenge exposures. Cellular immune responses, as measured by in vitro lymphocyte blastogen...
Tagmyer TL, Craigo JK, Cook SJ, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC.Equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) infection of horses provides a valuable model for examining the natural immunological control of lentivirus infection and disease and the mechanisms of protective and enhancing vaccine immunity. We have previously hypothesized that the EIAV envelope (Env) proteins gp90 and gp45 are major determinants of vaccine efficacy, and that the development of protective immunity by attenuated viral vaccines may be associated with the progressive redirection of immune responses from immunodominant, variable Env segments to immunorecessive, conserved Env sequences. Whi...
Li D, Mattoo P, Keller JE.Hyperimmune monovalent antitoxins to botulinum neurotoxin serotypes A and B have been produced by immunizing horses with newly developed formalin toxoids. After primary immunization, horses developed acceptable prophylactic antibody titers (1-5 IU/mL). Three horses received additional toxoid booster injections to induce hyperimmune antibody titers with antitoxin-A and antitoxin-B titers reaching peaks of approximately 2000 IU/mL and 150-625 IU/mL, respectively. Titers were quantified throughout the process by antigen-capture ELISA and by in-vivo neutralization. ELISA titers and neutralization ...
Barber TL, Walton TE, Lewis KJ.Twenty-nine horses were vaccinated with a trivalent (Venezuelan, eastern, and western) inactivated equine encephalomyelitis virus vaccine. The vaccine purchased for this study was the only one licensed and commercially available in May, 1975. Plaque-neutralizing and hemagglutinin-inhibiting antibodies in response to each of the 3 equine encephalomyelitis viruses were determined after vaccination. Horses had rising levels of plaque-neutralizing and hemagglutinin-inhibiting antibodies shortly after injection with the 1st and 2nd doses of the vaccine (given 3 weeks apart) and were refractory to c...
Hainisch EK, Abel-Reichwald H, Shafti-Keramat S, Pratscher B, Corteggio A, Borzacchiello G, Wetzig M, Jindra C, Tichy A, Kirnbauer R, Brandt S.We have previously shown that immunization of horses with bovine papillomavirus type 1 (BPV1) L1 virus-like particles (VLPs) is safe and highly immunogenic and that BPV1 and bovine papillomavirus type 2 (BPV2) are closely related serotypes. Here we evaluated the protective potential of a BPV1 L1 VLP vaccine against experimental BPV1 and BPV2 challenge and studied the safety and immunogenicity of a bivalent equine papillomavirus type 2 (EcPV2)/BPV1 L1 VLP vaccine. Fourteen healthy horses were immunized with BPV1 L1 VLPs (100 µg per injection) plus adjuvant on days 0 and 28, while seven remai...
Patel JR, Földi J, Bateman H, Williams J, Didlick S, Stark R.The temperature sensitive and host range mutant clone 147 of equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) was assessed for its ability to protect conventional, susceptible adult horses against respiratory infection by EHV-1 and equine herpesvirus 4 (EHV-4). Intranasal (IN) vaccination with 5.2 log(10) TCID(50) did not cause adverse clinical reactions although a limited virus shedding and viraemia (leukocytes) was observed in 11 of 15 and 10 of 15 vaccinated horses respectively. All 15 vaccinated horses showed a significant seroresponse to both EHV-1 and EHV-4 for virus neutralising (VN) antibody. None of 14 c...
Yamanaka T, Cullinane A, Gildea S, Bannai H, Nemoto M, Tsujimura K, Kondo T, Matsumura T.The protection induced by an equine influenza (EI) vaccine strain depends on its antigenic relatedness to the challenge virus. Although the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) recommend that both Florida sublineage clade 1 (Fc1) and clade 2 (Fc2) viruses should be included in EI vaccines, Japanese EI vaccines have not, thus far, been updated to include a Fc2 virus. Objective: To evaluate the efficacy of antibodies raised against Japanese EI vaccine strains in the neutralisation of recent Fc2 viruses. Methods: Antigenic analysis. Methods: Virus neutralisation tests were performed using a...
Lopez AM, Hecker R, Mutwiri G, van Drunen Littel-van den Hurk S, Babiuk LA, Townsend HG.Previous studies have shown that protection against equine influenza virus (EIV) is partially mediated by virus-specific IgGa and IgGb. In this study we tested whether addition of a CpG ODN formulation to a commercial killed virus vaccine would enhance EIV-specific IgGa and IgGb antibody responses, and improve protection against an experimental EIV challenge. Thirty naïve horses were assigned to one of three groups and vaccinated as follows: 10 were given vaccine (Encevac TC4, Intervet Inc.) alone, 10 were given vaccine plus 0.25 mg CpG ODN 2007 formulated with 30% Emulsigen (CpG/Em), and 10 ...
Lang J, Simanjuntak GH, Soerjosembodo S, Koesharyono C.WHO's reference protocol for post-exposure rabies vaccination advises five intramuscular injections on days 0, 3, 7, 14, and 30; in addition, rabies immunoglobulins (RIG) must be given to serious cases of exposure (grade III severity). Some studies indicate that these immunoglobulins suppress the immunogenicity of rabies vaccine when administered according to an alternative protocol of four injections (2-1-1) on days 0, 7, and 21, which was therefore not recommended for grade III exposures. To test this effect, we conducted a multicentre study in Indonesia using three groups of subjects. One g...
Breathnach CC, Yeargan MR, Sheoran AS, Allen GP.Equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) remains a frequent cause of upper respiratory tract infection and abortion in horses worldwide. However, little is known about the local antibody response elicited in the upper airways of horses following exposure to EHV-1. This study analysed the mucosal humoral immune response of weanling foals following experimental infection with virulent EHV-1, or vaccination with either of 2 commercial vaccines. Twenty weanlings were assigned to 5 groups and were inoculated with, or vaccinated against, EHV-1 following different regimens. Finally, all weanlings were simultaneo...
Zevenhoven-Dobbe JC, Greve S, van Tol H, Spaan WJM, Snijder EJ.Equine arteritis virus (EAV) contains seven structural proteins that are all required to produce infectious progeny. Alphavirus-based expression vectors have been generated for each of these proteins to explore the possibilities for their constitutive expression in cell lines. This approach was successful for minor glycoproteins GP(2b), GP(3) and GP(4) and for the E protein. Subsequently, it was demonstrated that cell lines expressing these proteins could rescue EAV mutants that were disabled in the expression of the corresponding gene, resulting in the production of virus particles carrying t...
Daly JM, Sindle T, Tearle J, Barquero N, Newton JR, Corning S.Surveillance of equine influenza viruses has suggested that strains included in currently licensed vaccines are a poor match for those predominantly circulating in the field. Objective: To assess the ability of Duvaxyn IE-T Plus to provide cross protection against the newly evolved South Africa/4/03 (H3N8) strain of equine influenza virus. Methods: The vaccine efficacy was evaluated by challenge infection with influenza strain A/eq/South Africa/4/03 (H3N8) 2 weeks after a primary course of 2 vaccinations with Duvaxyn IE-T Plus given at a 4-week interval. The outcome of challenge in vaccinated ...
Damiani AM, Scicluna MT, Ciabatti I, Cardeti G, Sala M, Vulcano G, Cordioli P, Martella V, Amaddeo D, Autorino GL.During local respiratory disease outbreaks, occurring in 2003 and 2004 in horse training stables within race-tracks in Rome, and on a stud horse farm in Bari in 2005, four strains of equine influenza (EI) virus were isolated. All outbreaks occurred in flu-vaccinated horses. Here, we are reporting the results of the genetic characterization of these isolates, together with that of another EI virus strain isolated in 1999 from a dead foal presenting pulmonary lesions. Alignment and phylogenetic analyses were carried out using the haemagglutinin amino acid sequences. The Rome and Bari isolates we...
Jin S, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC.We recently reported a highly protective attenuated live virus vaccine for equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) based on a proviral construct (EIAVUKDeltaS2) with a genetically engineered mutation in the viral S2 gene that eliminates expression of this accessory protein. While the EIAVUKDeltaS2 vaccine provides protection from detectable infection by experimental challenge with highly virulent virus, the potential for commercial application of this vaccine is complicated by the fact that horses inoculated with the EIAVUKDeltaS2 vaccine strain become seropositive in various reference diagnosti...
Jiang CG, Gao X, Ma J, Lin YZ, Wang XF, Zhao LP, Hua YP, Liu D, Zhou JH.Preliminary studies revealed that the gene of the gp45 transmembrane protein (TM) of the attenuated equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) vaccine strain EIAV(FDDV13) had a high frequency of a premature stop codon at position 261W, which generated a 154-residue truncation at the C-terminus. EIAV(FDDV-TM36), a recombinant virus with the TM truncated at the intracytoplasmic (CT) domain due to the presence of a stop codon, was constructed based on EIAV(FDDV)3-8, which is a proviral derivative of the vaccine. EIAV(FDDV-TM36) had a significantly reduced replication capability compared to EIAV(FDDV)3...
Kim H, Lee YK, Kang SC, Han BK, Choi KM.Various new technologies have been applied for developing vaccines against various animal diseases. Virus-like particle (VLP) vaccine technology was used for manufacturing the porcine circovirus type 2 and RNA particle vaccines based on an alphavirus vector for porcine epidemic diarrhea (PED). Although VLP is classified as a killed-virus vaccine, because its structure is similar to the original virus, it can induce long-term and cell-mediated immunity. The RNA particle vaccine used a Venezuela equine encephalitis (VEE) virus gene as a vector. The VEE virus partial gene can be substituted with ...
Walker C, Love DN, Whalley JM.The mouse models of the respiratory and abortion forms of equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) infection have been used to investigate the vaccine potential of various EHV-1 immunogens, the effect of antiviral agents on EHV-1 infection and the pathogenicity of EHV-1 strain variants and deletion or insertional mutants. This review examines the similarities and differences in the pathogenesis of primary EHV-1 infection in the natural host, the horse, and in the mouse by comparing tissue tropism, clinical signs of infection, the effects of EHV-1 on pregnancy, haematological changes following infection, v...
Wood JM, Mumford J, Schild GC, Webster RG, Nicholson KG.Single-radial-immunodiffusion (SRD) provides a sensitive and reproducible in vitro assay for haemagglutinin (HA) concentration in inactivated influenza vaccines. The use of SRD for human influenza vaccine standardization and application for equine and avian influenza vaccines is discussed. In clinical trials, vaccine HA concentration measured by SRD has been shown to be directly related to antibody responses and to protection against challenge. The use of SRD may considerably reduce the usage of animals for potency testing of veterinary influenza vaccines.
Castro ER, Perez R, Rodriguez S, Bassetti L, Negro R, Vidal R.Equine influenza is one of the major respiratory infectious diseases in horses. In 2018, equine influenza virus (EIV) was confirmed as the cause of outbreaks of respiratory disease in horses in Chile and Argentina. In the same year, for the first time in Uruguay, EIV infection was confirmed by isolation and molecular analysis to be the cause of respiratory disease among hundreds of clinically affected thoroughbred horses in training and racing facilities. The virus was detected in nasopharyngeal swabs by a pan-reactive influenza type A realtime reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (...
The Journal of hygieneJune 1, 1983
Volume 90, Issue 3 371-384 doi: 10.1017/s0022172400029004
Wood JM, Mumford J, Folkers C, Scott AM, Schild GC.Serological responses to three bivalent aqueous equine influenza vaccines of different potency and an adjuvanted bivalent vaccine containing inactivated A/equine/Prague/56 (H7N7) and A/equine/Miami/63 (H3N8) viruses, were examined in seronegative ponies. Potencies of the vaccines, measured by single-radial-diffusion tests, ranged from 4 to 56 micrograms of haemagglutinin (HA) antigen activity/virus strain per dose. Serological responses to vaccination were examined by haemagglutination-inhibition (HI) and single-radial-haemolysis (SRH) tests. Four weeks after a primary dose, HI responses to bo...
Jonsdottir S, Stefansdottir SB, Kristinarson SB, Svansson V, Bjornsson JM, Runarsdottir A, Wagner B, Marti E, Torsteinsdottir S.Insect bite hypersensitivity is an allergic dermatitis of horses caused by bites of Culicoides midges. Sufficient amount of pure, endotoxin-free allergens is a prerequisite for development and monitoring of preventive and therapeutic allergen immunotherapy. Aims of the study were to compare the Culicoides nubeculosus (Cul n) allergens Cul n 3 and Cul n 4, produced in transgenic barley grains with the corresponding E. coli or insect cells expressed proteins for measuring antibody and cytokine responses. Allergen-specific IgG responses were measured by ELISA in sera from twelve horses not expose...
Kheyar A, Martin S, St-Laurent G, Timoney PJ, McCollum WH, Archambault D.To provide a convenient and sensitive method for the detection of equine arteritis virus (EAV)-specific serum antibodies, we developed an immunoblot assay employing the EAV nucleocapsid (N) and membrane (M) proteins expressed in a procaryotic expression vector (pMAL-c2) for the production of recombinant maltose-binding (MBP) fusion proteins (MBP-N and MBP-M). The antigenic reactivity of the recombinant fusion proteins and their Xa factor cleavage EAV products was confirmed by immunoblot using horse antisera to EAV. Some horse sera, however, showed immune reactivity to the MBP fusion partner pr...
Burrage TG, Laegreid WW.African horsesickness (AHS) is a serious, non-contagious disease of horses and other solipeds caused by an arthropod-borne orbivirus of the family Reoviridae. In horses, AHS causes three distinct clinicopathologic syndromes, the pulmonary, cardiac and fever forms of the disease. Recent work has shown that the primary determinant of the form of disease expressed by naive horses is the virulence of the virus inoculum. Horses which recover from AHS exhibit solid humoral immunity against homologous challenge. Protective antibodies appear to be directed towards neutralizing epitopes on AHS virus VP...
