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Topic:Arteries

Arteries in horses are blood vessels responsible for carrying oxygenated blood away from the heart to various tissues and organs throughout the body. These vessels are integral to the circulatory system, facilitating the delivery of essential nutrients and oxygen to maintain cellular function and overall health. The structure of equine arteries includes a thick muscular wall that accommodates the high pressure of blood flow, allowing for efficient transport. Research on equine arteries often focuses on their anatomical characteristics, physiological functions, and potential disorders that may affect them, such as atherosclerosis or aneurysms. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that examine the anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology of arteries in horses.
Postpartum Massive Hematoma within the Broad Ligament of the Uterus in a Broodmare Possibly Caused by Rupture of the Uterine Artery.
Journal of equine science    October 23, 2009   Volume 20, Issue 3 41-46 doi: 10.1294/jes.20.41
Oikawa MA, Nambo Y, Miyamoto M, Miura H, Kikuchi M, Ohnami Y.A broodmare showed mild signs of abdominal discomfort and anemia after normal delivery. Ultrasonographic examination revealed a massive hematoma within the broad ligament adjacent to the uterine horn. Internal bleeding into the peritoneal cavity (hemoabdomen) was not seen. Following treatment, the clinical signs improved. Hemorrhage caused by rupture of the arteries within the broad ligament of the uterus may be a cause of hematoma. Prepartum and postpartum rupture of the arteries supplying the reproductive organs in the mare, which is not uncommon, can be fatal if severe hemoabdomen occurs. I...
Determination of cardiac output in neonatal foals by ultrasound velocity dilution and its comparison to the lithium dilution method.
Journal of veterinary emergency and critical care (San Antonio, Tex. : 2001)    October 14, 2009   Volume 19, Issue 5 438-443 doi: 10.1111/j.1476-4431.2009.00461.x
Shih A, Giguère S, Sanchez LC, Valverde A, Bandt C, Jankunas H, Robertson S.To compare cardiac output (CO) measured by use of lithium dilution (LiDCO) and ultrasound velocity dilution (UDCO) in conditions of high, intermediate, and low CO in anesthetized foals. Methods: Original prospective study. Methods: University teaching hospital. Methods: Six foals 1-3 days of age (38-45 kg). Methods: Neonatal foals were anesthetized and instrumented to measure direct blood pressure, heart rate, arterial blood gases, and CO. The CO was measured by use of LiDCO and UDCO techniques. Measurements were obtained from each foal at baseline and during low, intermediate, and high CO sta...
Characterization of bradykinin-induced endothelium-independent contraction in equine basilar artery.
Journal of veterinary pharmacology and therapeutics    August 4, 2009   Volume 32, Issue 3 264-270 doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2885.2008.01037.x
Ueno D, Yabuki A, Obi T, Shiraishi M, Nishio A, Miyamoto A.We investigated the effect of bradykinin (BK) on isolated equine basilar arterial rings with and without endothelium. BK induced concentration-dependent contraction of resting arterial rings and no relaxation when the rings were precontracted by prostaglandin F(2alpha). The maximal response and pD(2) value were 161.2 +/- 28.1% (to 60 mm KCl-induced contraction) and 8.24 +/- 0.25 respectively. The cumulative concentration-response curve for BK was not shifted to the right by des-Arg(9)-[Leu(8)]-BK (a B(1)-receptor antagonist), HOE140 (a B(2)-receptor antagonist) or NPC567 (another B(2)-receptor...
Thrombosis of the pulmonary artery in a yearling thoroughbred colt.
Journal of veterinary internal medicine    January 30, 2009   Volume 23, Issue 1 215-219 doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2008.0232.x
Bryan J, Puggioni A, McAllister H, Callanan J, Katz L, Duggan V.No abstract available
Vascular perfusion of reproductive organs in pony mares and heifers during sedation with detomidine or xylazine.
American journal of veterinary research    January 6, 2009   Volume 70, Issue 1 141-148 doi: 10.2460/ajvr.70.1.141
Araujo RR, Ginther OJ.To assess the vascular effects of detomidine and xylazine in pony mares and heifers, respectively, as determined in a major artery and by extent of vascular perfusion of reproductive organs. Methods: 10 pony mares and 10 Holstein heifers. Methods: Pony mares were assigned to receive physiologic saline (0.9% NaCl) solution (n = 5) or detomidine (3.0 mg/mare, IV; 5). Heifers were assigned to receive saline solution (5) or xylazine (14 mg/heifer, IM; 5). Color Doppler ultrasonographic examinations were performed immediately before and 10 minutes after administration of saline solution or sedative...
Use of a wireless system to measure invasive arterial blood pressure in ponies – preliminary study.
Veterinary anaesthesia and analgesia    January 6, 2009   Volume 36, Issue 1 1-8 doi: 10.1111/j.1467-2995.2008.00416.x
Ricco CH, Quandt JE, Novo RE, Killos M, Graham L.To evaluate the feasibility and functionality of intra-carotid wireless device implantation in ponies, and to investigate its short-term complications. Methods: Prospective preliminary study. Methods: Five mixed breed, adult, intact male ponies weighing 104 +/- 28.8 kg (mean +/- SD) underwent surgery. Arterial blood pressure data were continuously collected from four animals. Methods: General anesthesia was induced on two consecutive days. On the first day, an intra-arterial wireless device was implanted in the right carotid artery. On the next day, a transcutaneous intra-arterial catheter was...
Thromboxane and isoprostanes as inflammatory and vasoactive mediators in black walnut heartwood extract induced equine laminitis.
Veterinary immunology and immunopathology    November 7, 2008   Volume 129, Issue 3-4 200-210 doi: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2008.11.005
Noschka E, Moore JN, Peroni JF, Lewis SJ, Morrow JD, Robertson TP.Inflammation and vascular dysfunction occur concurrently during the prodromal stages of equine laminitis. The aim of this study was to provide insights into the role that thromboxane and isoprostanes may play in the development of black walnut heartwood extract (BWHE)-induced laminitis. Horses were divided into two groups, either control or BWHE-administered horses. Plasma concentrations of thromboxane increased transiently after administration of BWHE and coincided with the nadir in white blood cell counts, whereas plasma concentrations of iso-prostaglandin PGF(2alpha) (iso-PGF(2alpha)) did n...
Gross anatomy of the female genital organs of the domestic donkey (Equus asinus Linné, 1758).
Anatomia, histologia, embryologia    November 6, 2008   Volume 38, Issue 2 133-138 doi: 10.1111/j.1439-0264.2008.00911.x
Renner-Martin TF, Forstenpointner G, Weissengruber GE, Eberhardt L.Although donkeys play an important role as companion or pack and draught animals, theriogenological studies and anatomical data on the genital organs of the jenny are sparse. To provide anatomical descriptions and morphometric data, the organa genitalia feminina, their arteries and the ligamentum latum uteri of 10 adult but maiden jennies were examined by means of gross anatomical and morphometric techniques. In comparison with anatomical data of horses obtained from literature the genital organs of jennies appear to be more voluminous in relation to the body mass and the position of the ovari...
Pathophysiologic effects of phenylbutazone on the right dorsal colon in horses.
American journal of veterinary research    November 5, 2008   Volume 69, Issue 11 1496-1505 doi: 10.2460/ajvr.69.11.1496
McConnico RS, Morgan TW, Williams CC, Hubert JD, Moore RM.To determine pathophysiologic effects of phenylbutazone on the equine right dorsal colon (RDC). Methods: 12 healthy adult horses. Methods: A controlled crossover observational study was conducted. Clinical and serum variables, colonic inflammation (histologic grading), and measurement of myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, malondialdehyde (MDA) and prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2)) concentrations, ingesta volatile fatty acid (VFA) content, and arterial blood flow in the RDC were evaluated for a 21-day period in horses administered phenylbutazone (8.8 mg/kg, PO, q 24 h) or a control substance. Results: D...
Idiopathic arterial medial calcification of the thoracic arteries in an adult horse. Fales-Williams A, Sponseller B, Flaherty H.A 6-year-old, gelded, Paint horse displayed clinical signs of muscle wasting and limb stiffness for a 6-month period. The horse's clinical signs abated with corticosteroid therapy, but returned upon cessation of treatment. Upon necropsy, severe lesions of aortic thickening and aortic valve rigidity were observed. Histologically, the tunica media of the aorta, coronary arteries, and pulmonary arteries were expanded by foci of elastin fiber calcification and extracellular matrix with lacunae formation. The vascular lesions are comparative to what has been described as medial arterial calcificati...
Arterial calcification in race horses.
Veterinary pathology    August 30, 2008   Volume 45, Issue 5 617-625 doi: 10.1354/vp.45-5-617
Arroyo LG, Hayes MA, Delay J, Rao C, Duncan B, Viel L.Calcification of large arteries has been sporadically reported in horses. The pathogenesis is still unknown, but recent studies in humans suggest that this is a regulated biomineralizing process. This study surveyed the prevalence, distribution, and severity of vascular calcification in Thoroughbred and Standardbred racehorses. Histopathologic, ultrastructural imaging, and energy dispersive X-ray elemental analyses were used to examine the lesions. Calcification of the tunica media, predominantly the pulmonary artery, was found in 82% of horses (83/101). Young adult horses (mean [SD] age in ye...
Ultrasound-guided balloon thrombectomy for treatment of aorto-iliac-femoral thrombosis in a horse.
Journal of veterinary internal medicine    May 2, 2008   Volume 22, Issue 3 679-683 doi: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2008.0095.x
Hilton H, Aleman M, Textor J, Nieto J, Pevec W.No abstract available
[Long term outcome of arterial switch surgery for transposition of the great arteries: evaluation of the reconstruction of the pulmonary artery].
Kyobu geka. The Japanese journal of thoracic surgery    April 17, 2008   Volume 61, Issue 4 303-309 
Kawata H, Kishimoto H, Iwai S, Ishimaru K, Saito T, Kayatani F, Inamura N, Hamamichi Y, Kawada Y, Nasuno S, Maekawa S.We assessed the effect of reconstructing the pulmonary artery during arterial switch surgery for transposition of the great arteries on late pulmonary stenosis. Sixty-five patients who underwent Lecompte procedure between September 1991 and December 2006 were divided, by the procedure used chronologically to reconstruct the pulmonary artery, into group XP (single pantaloon patch with equine pericardium, n = 11), group P (direct reconstruction, n = 47), and group AP (single pantaloon patch with fresh autopericardium, n = 7). Outcome and pulmonary stenosis on the most recent ultrasound cardiogra...
Physiologic responses and plasma endothelin-1 concentrations associated with abrupt cessation of nitric oxide inhalation in isoflurane-anesthetized horses.
American journal of veterinary research    March 4, 2008   Volume 69, Issue 3 423-430 doi: 10.2460/ajvr.69.3.423
Grubb TL, Högman M, Edner A, Frendin JH, Heinonen E, Malavasi LM, Frostell CG, Ryden A, Alving K, Nyman GC.To assess physiologic responses and plasma endothelin (ET)-1 concentrations associated with abrupt cessation of nitric oxide (NO) inhalation in isoflurane-anesthetized horses. Methods: 6 healthy adult Standardbreds. Methods: Horses were anesthetized with isoflurane in oxygen and placed in dorsal recumbency. Nitric oxide was pulsed into the respiratory tract for 2.5 hours, and then administration was abruptly discontinued. Just prior to commencement and at cessation of NO administration, and at intervals during a 30-minute period following cessation of NO inhalation, several variables including...
Evaluation of equine laminar vein function: harvesting, dissection and the use of functional methods to distinguish between veins and arteries.
Journal of pharmacological and toxicological methods    January 19, 2008   Volume 57, Issue 2 92-99 doi: 10.1016/j.vascn.2007.10.005
Keen JA, Hillier C, McGorum BC, Bunton D, Nally JE.Pharmacological evaluation of the unique equine laminar microvasculature is crucial to understanding its role in health and in diseases such as laminitis. However, separating the distinctive characteristics of arterial versus venous components of this complex vascular network has previously proved to be extremely difficult. Encased in a hard hoof capsule, isolation of individual blood vessels presents a considerable challenge. Exacerbating this difficulty, the laminar venous network is adapted to sustain high intravascular pressures and consequently has thickened walls, making the normally str...
Characterization of agonist-induced endothelium-dependent vasodilatory responses in the vascular bed of the equine digit.
Journal of veterinary pharmacology and therapeutics    January 8, 2008   Volume 31, Issue 1 1-8 doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2885.2007.00912.x
Berhane Y, Bailey SR, Putignano C, Elliott J.The role of endothelium-derived relaxing factors was studied in the regulation of vascular responses in the Krebs perfused equine isolated digit. Perfusion pressure was recorded in response to bolus doses of 5-hydroxytryptamine (6 nmol) alone or co-administered with carbachol (CCh; 0.2 micromol), bradykinin (BK; 0.2 nmol), substance P (SP; 0.2 nmol) or sodium nitroprusside (SNP; 0.2 micromol). N(omega)-Nitro-L-Arginine methyl ester hydrochloride (L-NAME; 300 microm) caused partial but significant inhibition of CCh-induced vasodilatory response, whereas BK and SP-induced responses were resistan...
Effects of intramuscular administration of acepromazine on palmar digital blood flow, palmar digital arterial pressure, transverse facial arterial pressure, and packed cell volume in clinically healthy, conscious horses.
Veterinary surgery : VS    December 11, 2007   Volume 36, Issue 8 717-723 doi: 10.1111/j.1532-950X.2007.00325.x
Leise BS, Fugler LA, Stokes AM, Eades SC, Moore RM.To determine the magnitude and duration of effects of acepromazine administered intramuscularly (IM) on digital and systemic hemodynamic variables in clinically healthy horses. Methods: Experimental study. Methods: Healthy adult horses (n=12). Methods- An ultrasonic Doppler flow probe was surgically implanted around the medial palmar digital artery before the study. Catheters were inserted in the transverse facial artery, lateral palmar digital artery, and jugular vein. A treatment group (n=6) was administered 0.04 mg/kg body weight of acepromazine IM; control horses (n=6) were administered an...
Effects of unfractionated and fractionated heparins on myeloperoxidase activity and interactions with endothelial cells: possible effects on the pathophysiology of equine laminitis.
Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)    October 17, 2007   Volume 178, Issue 1 62-69 doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2007.08.033
de la Rebière G, Franck T, Deby-Dupont G, Salciccia A, Grulke S, Péters F, Serteyn D.As heparins are sometimes used to prevent equine laminitis, the interactions between equine neutrophil myeloperoxidase (MPO), unfractionated (UFH) and fractionated low molecular weight (LMWH) heparins and digital endothelium have been investigated. The effects of the heparins on purified equine MPO activity were tested by immunocapture followed by enzymatic detection. Endothelium-MPO interactions were assessed by measuring total and active MPO uptake by arterial and venous digital endothelial cells in culture with or without the addition of heparins. A dose-dependent MPO inhibition by UFH and ...
The cardiopulmonary effects of dobutamine and norepinephrine in isoflurane-anesthetized foals.
Veterinary anaesthesia and analgesia    August 13, 2007   Volume 34, Issue 6 377-387 doi: 10.1111/j.1467-2995.2006.00304.x
Craig CA, Haskins SC, Hildebrand SV.To evaluate the cardiovascular effects of norepinephrine (NE) and dobutamine (DB) in isoflurane-anesthetized foals. Methods: Prospective laboratory study. Methods: Norepinephrine (0.05, 0.10, 0.20, and 0.40 microg kg(-1) minute(-1)) and dobutamine (2.5, 5.0, and 10 microg kg(-1) minute(-1)) were alternately administered to seven healthy, 1- to 2-week-old isoflurane-anesthetized foals. Arterial and pulmonary arterial blood pressure, right atrial pressure, pulmonary artery occlusion pressure, heart rate, body temperature, cardiac output, arterial and mixed venous blood pH, partial pressure of ca...
Effects of Rho-kinase and Src protein tyrosine kinase inhibition on agonist-induced vasoconstriction of arteries and veins of the equine laminar dermis.
American journal of veterinary research    August 3, 2007   Volume 68, Issue 8 886-894 doi: 10.2460/ajvr.68.8.886
Robertson TP, Moore JN, Noschka E, Lewis TH, Lewis SJ, Peroni JF.To determine the effects of inhibition of Rho-kinase or Src-family protein tyrosine kinases (srcPTK) on agonist-induced contractile responses in equine laminar arteries and veins. Methods: Laminar arteries and veins obtained from 13 adult mixed-breed horses. Methods: Laminar vessels were mounted on myographs and exposed to phenylephrine (PE), 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), prostaglandin F(2) (PGF(2)), and endothelin-1 (ET-1) with or without the Rho-kinase inhibitor Y-27632 (10 microM), srcPTK inhibitor PP2 (10 microM), or a negative control analogue for PP2 (PP3; 10 microM). Results: Responses to...
Effect of voltage-gated and capacitative calcium entry blockade on agonist-induced constriction of equine laminar blood vessels.
American journal of veterinary research    July 4, 2007   Volume 68, Issue 7 722-729 doi: 10.2460/ajvr.68.7.722
Peroni JF, Moore JN, Noschka E, Lewis TH, Lewis SJ, Robertson TP.To characterize the relative contributions of voltage-gated and capacitative Ca(2+) entry to agonist-induced contractions of equine laminar arteries and veins. Methods: 16 adult mixed-breed horses. Methods: Laminar arteries and veins were isolated and mounted on small vessel myographs for the measurement of isometric tension. Concentration-response curves were obtained for the vasoconstrictor agonists phenylephrine, 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT), prostaglandin F(2) (PGF(2)), and endothelin-1 (ET-1) either in the absence of extracellular Ca(2+) or in the presence of the voltage-gated Ca(2+) channe...
Stereoselective pharmacokinetics of ketamine and norketamine after racemic ketamine or S-ketamine administration in Shetland ponies sedated with xylazine.
Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997)    July 2, 2007   Volume 177, Issue 3 432-435 doi: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2007.05.005
Larenza MP, Knobloch M, Landoni MF, Levionnois OL, Kronen PW, Theurillat R, Schatzmann U, Thormann W.The pharmacokinetics of ketamine and norketamine enantiomers after administration of intravenous (IV) racemic ketamine (R-/S-ketamine; 2.2 mg/kg) or S-ketamine (1.1 mg/kg) to five ponies sedated with IV xylazine (1.1mg/kg) were compared. The time intervals to assume sternal and standing positions were recorded. Arterial blood samples were collected before and 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 and 13 min after ketamine administration. Arterial blood gases were evaluated 5 min after ketamine injection. Plasma concentrations of ketamine and norketamine enantiomers were determined by capillary electrophoresis and wer...
Effects of syringe type and storage temperature on results of blood gas analysis in arterial blood of horses.
Journal of veterinary internal medicine    June 8, 2007   Volume 21, Issue 3 476-481 doi: 10.1892/0891-6640(2007)21[476:eostas]2.0.co;2
Picandet V, Jeanneret S, Lavoie JP.Results of arterial blood gas analysis can be biased by pre-analytical factors, such as time to analysis, syringe type, and temperature during storage. However, the acceptable delay between time of collection and analysis for equine arterial blood gas remains unknown. Objective: Dedicated plastic syringes provide better stability of arterial blood gases than multipurpose plastic syringes. Methods: Eight mares, 1 stallion, and 1 gelding, ages 3 to 10 years old. Methods: Arterial blood samples were collected in a glass syringe, a plastic syringe designated for blood gas collection, and a multipu...
Evaluation of activation of protein kinase C during agonist-induced constriction of veins isolated from the laminar dermis of horses.
American journal of veterinary research    June 5, 2007   Volume 68, Issue 6 664-669 doi: 10.2460/ajvr.68.6.664
Robertson TP, Moore JN, Noschka E, Lewis TH, Lewis SJ, Peroni JF.To determine the effects of the protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor, Ro-31-8220, on agonist-induced constriction of laminar arteries and veins obtained from horses. Methods: Laminar arteries and veins obtained from 8 adult mixed-breed horses. Methods: Laminar arteries and veins were isolated and mounted on small vessel myographs for the measurement of isometric tension. Concentration-response curves were then obtained for the vasoconstrictor agonists phenylephrine, 5-hydroxytryptamine, prostaglandin F(2), and endothelin-1. All responses were measured with or without the addition of Ro-31-8220 (3 ...
Cooling augments vasoconstriction mediated by 5-HT1 and alpha2-adrenoceptors in the isolated equine digital vein: involvement of Rho kinase.
European journal of pharmacology    May 22, 2007   Volume 569, Issue 3 212-221 doi: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2007.04.057
Zerpa H, Berhane Y, Elliott J, Bailey SR.The vasculature of the equine digit fulfils an important role in thermoregulation. In other species, it has been found that cooling may enhance the response of cutaneous vessels to 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) and alpha(2)-adrenoceptor agonists. Translocation of alpha(2)-adrenoceptors to the smooth muscle cell membrane, mediated by Rho kinase, is thought to be involved in the cooling-enhanced response in mouse tail arteries. However, little is known about the effect of cooling on 5-HT receptor function. The present investigation compared the response of 5-bromo-6-(2-imidazolin-2-ylamino) quinoxa...
Repeatability of Doppler ultrasonographic measurement of equine digital blood flow. Menzies-Gow NJ, Marr CM.The repeatability and sensitivity of Doppler ultrasonographic measurement of lateral digital arterial and venous blood flow has not been previously determined. Doppler ultrasonography was used to measure blood flow within the forelimb lateral digital vessels in one normal adult Thoroughbred horse on six occasions and in six normal adult Thoroughbred horses on three occasions, each occasion being at least 1 h apart, to determine the within- and between-horse variation. The values obtained from the right and left lateral digital vessels did not differ significantly. The within-horse coefficients...
Cardiovascular effects of acute pulmonary obstruction in horses with recurrent airway obstruction.
Journal of veterinary internal medicine    April 13, 2007   Volume 21, Issue 2 302-307 doi: 10.1892/0891-6640(2007)21[302:ceoapo]2.0.co;2
Johansson AM, Gardner SY, Atkins CE, LaFevers DH, Breuhaus BA.Recurrent airway obstruction (RAO) is common in horses. Although pulmonary artery (PA) pressure increases during RAO, cardiac function in horses with RAO has received limited attention. Objective: The purpose of this study was to noninvasively determine the cardiovascular effects of acute pulmonary obstruction (APO) in horses with RAO and their reversibility. Methods: Five geldings with RAO, inducible by exposure to moldy hay, were studied. Methods: Pulmonary mechanics, echocardiography, serum troponin I concentrations, arterial blood gases, and hematocrit were obtained before and after 7 days...
Bilateral thrombosis of the brachial artery in an adult horse.
The Veterinary record    March 14, 2007   Volume 160, Issue 10 340-342 doi: 10.1136/vr.160.10.340
Gasthuys FM, Chiers K, De Clercq D, Govaere J, van Loon G.No abstract available
[Pulmonary artery wedge pressure and heart rate measurement during pharmacological stress induction for left cardial function diagnosis in horses with and without heart disease].
DTW. Deutsche tierarztliche Wochenschrift    August 9, 2006   Volume 113, Issue 7 255-263 
Gehlen H, Groner U, Rohn K, Stadler P.In 18 horses, the pulmonary artery wedge pressure and the heart rate were measured during pharmacological stress load. 12 horses were healthy (4 trained, 8 untrained) and 6 horses had a heart disease (3 trained, 3 untrained). Pharmacological stress induction was carried out with the sympathomimetic drug dobutamine at a dosage rate of 7.5 microg/kg/min over 10 minutes of infusion. At the fourth minute, the parasympatholytic drug atropine was administered (5 microg/kg bw), and the heart rate and the pulmonary artery wedge pressure were continuously measured over 26 minutes. During sole dobutamin...
Comparison of 2 endothelin-receptor antagonists on in vitro responses of equine palmar digital arterial and venous rings to endothelin-1. Stokes AM, Venugopal CS, Hosgood G, Eades SC, Moore RM.The goals of this study were to determine the concentration-response (C-R) relationship of endothelin-1 (ET-1), compare 2 ET-receptor antagonists and determine the antagonist concentrations that block the vasomotor effects of ET-1, and compare the effectiveness of ET-1 and previously studied vasoconstrictors in equine palmar digital arterial and venous rings in vitro. Vessel rings from 8 nonlaminitic horses were placed in Tyrode's solution, 1 side fixed to the floor of an organ bath and the other side fixed to a force-displacement transducer. Two separate studies were conducted: (I) incubation...