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Topic:Athletic Horses
The topic of athletic horses encompasses the study and analysis of horses that are trained and conditioned for performance in various disciplines such as racing, show jumping, dressage, and eventing. These horses are subject to specialized training regimens and nutritional plans to optimize their physical capabilities and performance outcomes. Research in this area often focuses on aspects such as biomechanics, cardiovascular fitness, muscle physiology, and injury prevention. This topic includes a collection of peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the physiological adaptations, training methodologies, and health management practices associated with maintaining and enhancing the performance of athletic horses.
Pulmonary artery wedge pressure increases with high-intensity exercise in horses. Using catheter mounted microtip manometers, right atrial, pulmonary artery, and pulmonary artery wedge pressures were studied in 8 horses while they were standing quietly (rest), and during galloping at treadmill speeds of 8, 10, and 13 m/s. At rest, mean (+/- SEM) heart rate, mean right atrial pressure, mean pulmonary artery pressure, and mean pulmonary artery wedge pressure were 37 (+/- 2) beats/min, 8 (+/- 2) mm of Hg, 31 (+/- 2) mm of Hg, and 18 (+/- 2) mm of Hg, respectively. Exercise at treadmill belt speed of 8 m/s resulted in significant (P < 0.05) increments in heart rate, right at...
A preliminary study of transitions between the walk and trot in dressage horses. The object of this study was to determine the limb support sequence during the transitions from walk to trot and from trot to walk in dressage horses under saddle and to test the null hypothesis that the limb support sequence during the transitions is not related to the level of training. Sixteen dressage horses training at novice to FEI Grand Prix level were videotaped performing an average of 9 transitions each from walk to trot and from trot to walk. The 30-Hz videotapes were viewed in slow motion, and based on the limb support sequence the transitions were categorized into two types. In ty...
The correlation of running ability and physiological variables in thoroughbred racehorses. The running abilities of 25 Thoroughbred racehorses were measured at distances of 1200, 1600 and 20000 m. Various physiological variables were measured subsequently on the treadmill and correlated with running speed. There was a negative correlation for running speed with the velocity (VLa4) and work rate (WLa4) at which blood lactate reaches a steady-state concentration of 4 mmol/litre and a positive correlation with peak plasma lactate, suggesting that plasma lactate concentrations of faster horses rise more rapidly and to higher levels than do those of slower horses. The correlation between...
Stride characteristics of overground versus treadmill locomotion in the saddle horse. The purpose of this study was to compare the velocity-dependent changes in stride length and stride frequency of horses performing the same incremental exercise test first on a track with a rider and then on a treadmill with a 0 and 3.5% slope successively. Seven French saddle horses undertook the exercise test which consisted of 5 stages of increasing speed for 3 min each with 1 min rest between each stage (1.6, 4.2, 8.3, 9.2 and 10 m/s). The horses were recorded by use of a video camera, and the tapes were analysed with regard to gait parameters. At 1.6, 8.3, 9.2 and 10 m/s, stride frequenci...
Gallop kinematics of Olympic three-day event horses. Limb contact variables of the gallop of 3-day event horses were determined for competitors in the 1988 Seoul Summer Olympic Games. Horses were filmed during the steeplechase, phase B of the speed and endurance test on day 2 of competition. Two 16-mm high-speed cameras were aimed perpendicularly to the direction of subject motion along a straightaway on the steeplechase track, filmed at 200 frames/s. Thirty-four of 48 competitors were filmed and 108 gallop strides analyzed. Velocity (VEL) averaged 12.09 +/- 0.10 m/s (mean +/- SE), stride length (SL) 6.04 +/- 0.05 m and stride frequency (SF) 2.0...
Functional significance of the morphology and micromechanics of collagen fibres in relation to partial rupture of the superficial digital flexor tendon in racehorses. The high incidence of partial rupture of the superficial digital flexor tendor in the equine athlete represents a major cause for concern in the racing industry. Frequently, the lesion is localised to the central core of the tendon. This study tested the hypothesis that the site specific structural failure results from differences in the collagen fibre morphology and associated micromechanics between central and peripheral regions of the tendon. Bundles of collagen fibres were dissected from central and peripheral sites in the mid-metacarpal region of the tendon. Crimp morphology was quantifie...
Measurement of tracheal static pressure in exercising horses. A nasotracheal catheter for measuring tracheal static pressure in exercising horses was designed according to aerodynamic engineering principles. Small ports near the end of the catheter transmitted pressure fluctuations to the recording apparatus. Accuracy was determined by the size, number, and location of pressure sensing holes on the catheter, and by the position of the catheter in the trachea. The catheter had adequate frequency response to 33 Hz, was insensitive to movement artifacts, was easily introduced, was tolerated well by horses, and resulted in small ventilatory impairment at max...
Conservative management of fourth tarsal bone fracture in a draft horse. A fourth tarsal bone fracture was treated conservatively in an adult draft horse. Seven months after the injury, the horse had no evidence of lameness and was able to compete in athletic events. It has been suggested that conservative management of these fractures be considered for brood animals or animals used for less strenuous activities. The outcome of this case suggests that fourth tarsal bone fractures can be successfully treated in athletic animals with conservative management.
Respiratory mechanics of horses during stepwise treadmill exercise tests, and the effect of clenbuterol pretreatment on them. Normal Standardbred horses were given an incremental exercise test on a horizontal treadmill to evaluate the influence of exercise on gas exchange, resistance, dynamic compliance and inertance of the respiratory system. The exercise test consisted of 2 min exercise steps at each of the following speeds: 2.4 m/sec (walk), 4.5 m/sec (slow trot), 7.0 m/sec (fast trot) and 10 m/sec (gallop). At rest and after 1 min of exercise at each step, airflow, tidal volume, respiratory frequency, pharyngeal, mid-oesophageal and transdiaphragmatic pressures and arterial blood gas tensions were measured. The s...
[A horse with osteochondrosis. Now what?]. Based on three clinical cases, the history and the clinical and radiological aspects of osteochondrosis in horses are discussed. The prognosis, therapy and consequences with regard to athletic soundness and use for breeding are described.
Clinical and radiographic features, treatment and outcome in 15 horses with fracture of the medial aspect of the patella. A sagittal fracture of the medial aspect of the patella was identified in 15 horses, 2 of which had been kicked and 12 of which had hit a fixed fence while jumping. Eight horses showed concurrent fragmentation of the base of the patella, and 2 had sustained a concurrent fracture of the distal end of the lateral trochlear ridge of the femur. A cranioproximal-craniodistal oblique radiographic view was essential to identify the site of the medial patellar fracture and to determine its configuration. Fourteen horses were treated by surgical removal of the medial patellar fracture fragment(s). Of 1...
[Diagnosis and therapy of tendinitis exemplified by the athletic horse].
Sportverletzung Sportschaden : Organ der Gesellschaft fur Orthopadisch-Traumatologische Sportmedizin
This paper reviews the literature and describes our experiences in the diagnosis and treatment of tendinitis in horses. Ultrasonography provides a sensitive tool to diagnose tendinitis and quantitate the degree of damage to the tendon; as well as provide differential diagnoses such as peritendinitis. The principles in therapy of acute tendinitis are: Immediate reduced exercise or rest, physical therapy to reduce inflammation and administration of local and systemic antiinflammatory drugs. The goal is restoration of the tensile strength of the tendon without peritendinous granulation tissue and... Four forearm flexor muscles of the horse, Equus caballus: anatomy and histochemistry. Two of the forearm flexors of the horse, the superficial and deep digital flexor muscles, are critical to support the digital and fetlock joints, exhibit differing insertions, and are passively supported by the proximal and distal check ligaments, respectively. These two muscles differ in histochemical composition and architecture. The differences are correlated with the different stress levels transmitted through their tendons, and the different frequencies of clinical breakdown that have been reported. Both muscles contain type I and type IIa fibers. A few type IIb fibers occurred in the dee...
The synchronization of ventilation and locomotion in horses (Equus caballus). Ciné film and synchronized records of respiratory flow were obtained from Thoroughbred racehorses cantering on a treadmill at speeds of 9 and 11 m s-1. Horses and some other galloping and hopping mammals link their breathing and locomotion, taking exactly one breath per stride. Three theoretical mechanisms by which the movements of locomotion might drive ventilation are considered. (i) Flexion of the lumbosacral joint and the resulting forward sweep of the pelvis pushes the viscera against the diaphragm. However, back flexion lags behind ventilation at 11 m s-1 and could not exclusively drive...
Plasma potassium and lactate concentrations in thoroughbred horses during exercise of varying intensity. To investigate the effect of moderate to high intensity exercise of up to 6 min duration on plasma potassium and lactate concentrations, 6 Thoroughbred horses were studied using a treadmill at a 5 degree incline. Each test consisted of an 8-min standardised warm-up followed by an exercise bout at 8, 9, 10 or 12 m/sec. The horses were galloped at each speed for up to a maximum of 6 min or until signs of fatigue were present. The horses were then walked at 0 degree incline. Carotid arterial blood samples were taken during and after the exercise. At 8, 9 and 10 m/sec there was a general pattern o...
Skeletal muscle fiber size in untrained and endurance-trained horses. The mean area and minimal diameter of 3 histochemically determined myofiber types (1, 2A, and 2B; myosin ATPase in acid buffer) were calculated in middle gluteal muscle biopsy specimens from 62 stallions, 47 Andalusians and 15 Arabians, ranging in age from 6 to 12 years. Fourteen Andalusians and 7 Arabians were untrained, and the remainder were actively endurance-trained. The 6-month training schedules involved walking, slow trotting, and cantering. Fourteen Andalusians were moderately endurance-trained, whereas the other 19 Andalusians and 8 Arabians were strongly endurance-trained. Significa...
Long-term effects of desmotomy of the accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor muscle in standardbreds: 23 cases (1979-1989). Desmotomy of the accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor muscle (inferior check desmotomy) permitted Standardbred foals affected with flexural deformities to reach their full athletic potential. Long-term effects of inferior check desmotomy were examined in 23 Standardbreds over a 10-year period. Six of 11 foals that were treated surgically either raced 6 times and obtained a race record or were training sound (if yearlings). All 12 horses with flexural deformity that did not receive an inferior check desmotomy had an unfavorable outcome (no race record). Foals that had surgery performed...
A comparative study of the metabolic effort expended by horse riders during a jumping competition. The three main Olympic horse riding disciplines are dressage, jumping, and three-day eventing (including dressage, cross country and jumping). In the jumping discipline (obstacle race), the 'team' (horse rider) is judged under the different conditions that might take place in a varied run. The horse is expected to show power and ability; the rider must show riding skill and good physical condition. However, the different conditions encountered by the rider during competition (duration of event, continuous isometric working level, especially in the inferior trunk, lead us to consider the need f...
Ultrastructural changes in skeletal muscle after fatiguing exercise. Thoroughbred horses were exercised to fatigue at 40, 85, and 100% of their maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) on a treadmill and completed a 1,600-m gallop on a track to identify the effect of exercise of various durations and intensities on the ultrastructure of mitochondria and sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) from the middle gluteal muscle. The percentage of the total area occupied by mitochondria and SR increased in electron micrographs of muscle samples collected at the termination of exercise and at 30 and 60 min of recovery compared with those collected before exercise. Mitochondrial area i...
The response of equine cortical bone to loading at strain rates experienced in vivo by the galloping horse. The behaviour of cortical bone under load is strain rate-dependent, i.e. it is dependent on the rate at which the load is applied. This is particularly relevant in the galloping horse since the strain rates experienced by the bone are far in excess of those recorded for any other species. In this study the effect of strain rates between 0.0001 and 1 sec-1 on the mechanical properties of equine cortical bone were assessed. Initially, increasing strain rates resulted in increased mechanical properties. Beyond a critical value, however, further increases in strain rate resulted in lower strain to...
Follow-up of 28 horses with third metacarpal unicortical stress fractures following treatment with osteostixis. The results of 31 intracortical dorsal metacarpal stress fractures in 28 horses following unicortical osteostixis were reviewed. The incidence was predominately in the middle third of the lateral aspect of the left metacarpus, and males were affected more commonly. Approximately half of the surgical procedures were performed with the horse in the standing position. The mean times to return to training and racing were 4.25 and 6.9 months respectively. There was no correlation between time taken to return to racing and position of surgery. Complications experienced included lack of suture remova...
[The appearance of stress on the movement apparatus in dressage, jumping and versatility horses]. Jumping and military (three days events) horses are exposed, during sports activities, to a particularly high stress especially in the region of the extremities (limbs). The genesis of tendon, joint and bone diseases are traced in accordance to the centers of the load during movement sequence. A special statistics on injuries concerning the German competition horses does not exist yet. Out of the available statistics about the German competition horses it is not obvious that as a result of its use as sports horses a particular high loss occur among these horses.
Plasma beta-endorphin and adrenocorticotrophin in young horses in training. A controlled period of submaximal exercise on a treadmill was used as a standardised stress test in 6 young horses to monitor the effects of training. Circulating plasma concentrations of immunoreactive beta-endorphin (IR beta-EP) were measured before, during and after the exercise period. The stress test was conducted on 3 occasions during an intensive training program lasting 14 weeks. In week 3 a marked increase in plasma IR beta-EP (P = 0.003) was demonstrated as a result of training, but by the last exercise test performed in week 9 no significant increase in plasma IR beta-EP concentrati...
Scintigraphic identification of skeletal muscle damage in horses 24 hours after strenuous exercise. The uptake of the bone-seeking radiopharmaceutical 99mTc-MDP by damaged skeletal muscle in horses is evaluated. Twenty-four hours following strenuous exercise, 109 racehorses with a history of inadequate athletic performance and subtle lameness were imaged using scintigraphic techniques. Ten horses (9.2 per cent) demonstrated abnormal uptake of the radioisotope within skeletal muscles. A muscle biopsy from one of these horses confirmed that the muscles with increased scintigraphic activity had histologic evidence of rhabdomyolysis. This technique allows localisation and relative quantification...
Clenbuterol plasma concentrations after repeated oral administration and its effects on cardio-respiratory and blood lactate responses to exercise in healthy Standardbred horses. To evaluate the effects of clenbuterol on cardio-respiratory parameters and blood lactate relation to exercise tolerance, experimental horses performed standardized exercise tests on a high-speed treadmill before and after administration of the drug. Clenbuterol was administered in feed to six healthy Standardbreds at a dose rate of 0.8 micrograms/kg b.wt twice daily for 5.5 days. Each horse was tested twice, without and with a respiratory mask, during two consecutive days. One week elapsed between the baseline tests without drug and the tests with clenbuterol treatment (each horse served as i...
Treadmill exercise testing. Treadmill installation and training protocols used for clinical evaluations of equine athletes. The use of motorized treadmills has made it possible to evaluate equine poor performance with sophisticated diagnostic techniques during peak exercise. Treadmill exercise tests currently being used for clinical evaluations include treadmill gait analysis, dynamic hoof balancing, endoscopic evaluation of upper airway function, and exercise performance profiling. Large motorized treadmills (1 to 1.5 m in width and 4 to 5 m in length) are best suited for clinical evaluations. Ideally, the treadmill should be installed in-ground using a pit. This type of installation results in the tread surface b...
Dynamic evaluation of the equine upper respiratory tract. Each case of suboptimal equine athletic performance should be evaluated in a comprehensive manner, including physical examination; clinical pathologic analysis; and evaluation of the neurologic system, the musculoskeletal system, and the upper and lower respiratory system. A vital part of this examination is the clinical evaluation of dynamic upper respiratory tract function of the horse during treadmill exercise, which allows the observation of upper respiratory tract function during conditions simulating competitive racing. It generally is agreed that the endoscopic identification of an uppe...
