Topic:Clostridium
Clostridium species are Gram-positive, anaerobic bacteria that are commonly found in the environment and as part of the normal gut flora in horses. These bacteria can produce potent toxins, leading to various diseases in equines, such as tetanus, botulism, and colitis. The presence and activity of Clostridium species in horses can result in clinical conditions ranging from mild gastrointestinal disturbances to severe, life-threatening infections. This page aggregates peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the taxonomy, pathogenic mechanisms, and clinical implications of Clostridium infections in horses, providing insights into diagnostic approaches, treatment strategies, and preventive measures.
Fecal PCR testing for detection of Clostridium perfringens and Clostridioides difficile toxin genes and other pathogens in foals with diarrhea: 28 cases. and cause significant morbidity and mortality in foals. Antemortem diagnosis of infection has been complicated by a paucity of tests available for toxin detection. Fecal PCR panels have assays for a variety of toxin gene sequences as well as for several other foal gastrointestinal pathogens. We evaluated results of a comprehensive fecal diarrhea PCR panel in 28 foals that had been presented to a referral hospital because of diarrhea. Sixteen (57%) foals were positive for and/or toxin gene sequences on fecal PCR, including 3 foals positive for NetF toxin. These foals were younger ( = ...
The comparative pathology of enterocolitis caused by Clostridium perfringens type C, Clostridioides difficile, Paeniclostridium sordellii, Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhimurium, and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in horses. To determine if there were significant differences produced by 5 of the most prevalent causes of equine enterocolitis, we studied retrospectively the gross and microscopic pathology of 90 cases of enterocolitis submitted to the San Bernardino laboratory of the California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory. Included were cases caused by Clostridium perfringens type C (CP; n = 20), Clostridioides difficile (CD; n = 20), Paeniclostridium sordellii (PS; n = 15), Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhimurium (ST; n = 20), and NSAID intoxication (NS; n = 15). ...
Humoral Immune Response Evaluation in Horses Vaccinated with Recombinant Clostridium perfringens Toxoids Alpha and Beta for 12 Months. In horses, Clostridium perfringens is associated with acute and fatal enterocolitis, which is caused by a beta toxin (CPB), and myonecrosis, which is caused by an alpha toxin (CPA). Although the most effective way to prevent these diseases is through vaccination, specific clostridial vaccines for horses against C. perfringens are not widely available. The aim of this study was to pioneer the immunization of horses with three different concentrations (100, 200 and 400 µg) of C. perfringens recombinant alpha (rCPA) and beta (rCPB) proteins, as well as to evaluate the humoral immune response ove...
The first case of Tyzzer’s disease in a young foal in Italy: a case report. Seizures, coma and death rapidly appeared after admission in a one ‑month‑old foal with a history of lethargy, fever and anorexia. Severe icterus and necrotizing hepatitis were observed at necropsy. Clinical signs, laboratory and postmortem findings were compatible with a suspect of clostridial hepatitis. Tyzzer’s disease was confirmed by the presence of organisms morphologically consistent with Clostridium piliforme in the hepatocytes at the margins of multiple areas of hepatic necrosis. To the authors’ knowledge, this is the first reported case of clostridial hepatitis caused by Clos...
Clostridium piliforme infection (Tyzzer disease) in horses: retrospective study of 25 cases and literature review. Tyzzer disease (TD) is caused by Clostridium piliforme, a gram-negative and obligate intracellular bacterium. The disease occurs in multiple species. A triad of lesions, namely colitis, hepatitis, and myocarditis, is described in cases of TD in some species, such as rats and mice. We carried out a retrospective analysis of 25 equine cases with a diagnosis of TD; 24 of 25 cases occurred in foals <45 d old; the remaining foal was 90 d old. There were 12 males and 12 females; no sex information was available for one foal. The affected breeds were Quarter Horse, Thoroughbred, Arabian, Paint, and...
Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile in neonatal foals and mares at a referral hospital. Understanding the epidemiology of Clostridium difficile is important for the development and assessment of infection prevention and control practices, as well as surveillance methods and interpretation of diagnostic testing results. Objective: Our objective was to longitudinally evaluate C. difficile shedding in neonatal foals and mares admitted to a referral hospital neonatal intensive care unit. Methods: Foals admitted to a neonatal intensive care unit, along with their dams. Methods: Rectal swabs were collected from mares and foals at admission, and then approximately every 3 days, when p...
Effect of oral administration of omeprazole on the microbiota of the gastric glandular mucosa and feces of healthy horses. Omeprazole administration is associated with changes in gastric and fecal microbiota and increased incidence of Clostridioides difficile enterocolitis in humans and dogs. Objective: Study purpose was to assess the effect of omeprazole on gastric glandular and fecal microbiota in healthy adult horses. Methods: Eight healthy horses stabled on straw and fed 100% haylage. Methods: Prospective controlled study. Transendoscopic gastric glandular biopsies, gastric fluid, and fecal samples were obtained from each horse twice at a 7-day interval before the administration of omeprazole. Samples were tak...
Clostridioides difficile carriage in animals and the associated changes in the host fecal microbiota. The relationship between the gut microbiota and Clostridioides difficile, and its role in the severity of C. difficile infection in humans is an area of active research. Intestinal carriage of toxigenic and non-toxigenic C. difficile strains, with and without clinical signs, is reported in animals, however few studies have looked at the risk factors associated with C. difficile carriage and the role of the host gut microbiota. Here, we isolated and characterized C. difficile strains from different animal species (predominantly canines (dogs), felines (cats), and equines (horses)) that were...
Changes in blood biomarkers in Arabian horses with Clostridium difficile-induced enterocolitis. Clostridium difficile (CD) is considered a major health care problem both in developing and developed countries; frequently reported to be associated with enterocolitis and diarrhea in horses and other animals. In this study, we examined acute phase response (APR), cytokines response, neopterin (NP) procalcitonin (PCT) production and oxidative stress condition in horses and foals with C. difficile-induced enterocolitis (CDIE) and evaluated the effectiveness of these parameters as biomarkers for the disease. A total of 407 Arabian horses in 35 stables were examined between January 2017 to Decem...
Immunochromatographic test and ELISA for the detection of glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) and A/B toxins as an alternative for the diagnosis of Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile-associated diarrhea in foals and neonatal piglets. Considering the lack of studies evaluating the performance of commercially available methods for diagnosis of Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile infection (CDI) in animals, the present study aimed to assess an immunochromatographic test for detection of glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) and A/B toxins of C. difficile, also evaluated by an ELISA kit, in foals and neonatal piglets. Intestinal contents of 47 piglets and feces of 35 foals were tested to GDH antigen and A/B toxins in a lateral flow method (Ecodiagnostica, Brazil). Also, these samples were submitted to A/B toxin detection by an ELIS...
Impact of Dietary Cellobiose on the Fecal Microbiota of Horses. Cellobiose is a disaccharide with potential prebiotic effects, as demonstrated in different animal species, but not yet in horses. It was, therefore, the aim of the present study to evaluate the impact of dietary cellobiose on the fecal microbiota of horses. Eight healthy adult horses and two ponies were included in this study. The animals received a diet without or with 10 g and 20 g cellobiose per day for 14 days each. At the end of the feeding periods, fresh fecal samples were collected to measure bacterial metabolites and the microbial composition. For the microbiota analysis, 16S rRNA ...
Facial nerve paralysis in 64 equids: Clinical variables, diagnosis, and outcome. Facial nerve paralysis (FNP) in equids is not well described in the veterinary literature. Objective: To investigate the causes of FNP and associations among clinical variables, diagnosis, and outcome. Methods: Sixty-four equids presenting with FNP between July 2000 and April 2019. Cases of postanesthetic FNP were excluded. Methods: Medical records were retrospectively reviewed. Variables were evaluated for associations with outcomes (diagnosis and case outcome) using logistic regression. Results: The most common cause of FNP was trauma (n = 20). Additional diagnoses included central nervous s...
Mortality, clinical findings, predisposing factors and treatment of Clostridioides difficile colitis in Japanese thoroughbred racehorses. Although Clostridioides difficile-associated diseases (CDAD) is considered to be associated with colitis in horses, few studies have been performed with a focus on the characteristics of CDAD in thoroughbred racehorses. Between 2010 and 2018, a test for C. difficile was performed using faecal samples from 137 thoroughbred racehorses with colitis presenting with diarrhoea and fever. The mortality rate, clinical findings, predisposing factors and the selected treatments were investigated in a retrospective manner. Twenty-four cases were diagnosed as CDAD and 113 as non-CDAD. The mortality rate w...
The effects of a nutritional supplement containing salacinol in neonatal Thoroughbred foals. A nutritional supplement containing salacinol (NSS) was administered to Thoroughbred foals daily beginning 21 days after birth, and clinical signs and intestinal microbiota were analyzed. The average number of days for which foals exhibited a fever between 21 and 110 days after birth was determined. The number of days was significantly reduced, by approximately 1/3, in the NSS group compared with the control group. Furthermore, improved weight gain was observed in the NSS group compared with the control group. By analyzing the intestinal microbiota, it was determined that the ratio of Clostrid...
NetF-producing Clostridium perfringens and its associated diseases in dogs and foals. The role of type A in canine acute hemorrhagic diarrhea syndrome and foal necrotizing enteritis is poorly characterized. However, a highly significant association between the presence of novel toxigenic and these specific enteric diseases has been described. These novel toxigenic strains produce 3 novel putative toxins, which have been designated NetE, NetF, and NetG. Although not conclusively demonstrated, current evidence suggests that NetF is likely the major virulence factor in strains responsible for canine acute hemorrhagic diarrhea syndrome and foal necrotizing enteritis. NetF is a be...
Paeniclostridium (Clostridium) sordellii-associated enterocolitis in 7 horses. Enteric disease in horses may be caused by a variety of microorganisms, including several clostridial species. (previously ) has been frequently associated with gas gangrene in humans and several animal species, including horses. However, its role in enteric diseases of animals has not been fully determined. We describe herein 7 cases of enteric disease in horses associated with infection. Grossly, the small and/or large intestines were necrotic, hemorrhagic, and edematous. Microscopically, there was severe mucosal necrosis and hemorrhage of the small and/or large intestine of all horses. w...
Clostridioides (Clostridium) Difficile in Food-Producing Animals, Horses and Household Pets: A Comprehensive Review. is ubiquitous in the environment and is also considered as a bacterium of great importance in diarrhea-associated disease for humans and different animal species. Food animals and household pets are frequently found positive for toxigenic without exposing clinical signs of infection. Humans and animals share common ribotypes (RTs) suggesting potential zoonotic transmission. However, the role of animals for the development of human infection due to remains unclear. One major public health issue is the existence of asymptomatic animals that carry and shed the bacterium to the environment, an...
Clostridium sordellii-associated gas gangrene in 8 horses, 1998-2019. Gas gangrene occurs in several animal species and is caused by one or more clostridial species. In horses, the disease is most often caused by Clostridium perfringens type A. Although Clostridium sordellii has been associated with gas gangrene in ruminants and humans, cases of the disease associated with this microorganism have not been described in horses, to our knowledge. We report herein 8 cases of gas gangrene caused by C. sordellii in horses. These cases were characterized by myonecrosis and cellulitis, associated with systemic changes suggestive of toxic shock. The diagnosis was confirm...
Prevalence of Clostridium difficile and Clostridium perfringens in Swiss horses with and without gastrointestinal disease and microbiota composition in relation to Clostridium difficile shedding. Overgrowth of enteric clostridia in dysbiosis in horses with colic is presumed but scarcely investigated. The objective was to provide prevalence data of Clostridium difficile and Clostridium perfringens in horses with and without gastrointestinal disease in Switzerland, and investigate microbiota differences between C. difficile shedders and non-shedders. Fecal samples were taken from healthy horses (n = 103), horses with colic (n = 98) and horses with diarrhea (n = 151). Colic horses were sampled on three days. Selective enrichment culture and molecular typing for C. difficile an...
Expression of immune regulatory genes correlate with the abundance of specific Clostridiales and Verrucomicrobia species in the equine ileum and cecum. Billions of bacteria inhabit the gastrointestinal tract. Immune-microbial cross talk is responsible for immunological homeostasis, and symbiotic microbial species induce regulatory immunity, which helps to control the inflammation levels. In this study we aimed to identify species within the equine intestinal microbiota with the potential to induce regulatory immunity. These could be future targets for preventing or treating low-grade chronic inflammation occurring as a result of intestinal microbial changes and disruption of the homeostasis. 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing was performed on ...
The First Identification and Antibiogram of Clostridium perfringens Type C Isolated from Soil and The Feces of Dead Foals in South Korea. Clostridium (C.) perfringens was isolated from 25 (11.1%) of 225 sampled horses and from 16 (35.56%) of 45 farms. All of the samples were negative for cpe, etx, itx, NetF genes and cpa gene were detected in 100% (25 of 25) of the samples that were positive for C. perfringens. cpb and cpb2 were detected in 40.0% (10 of 25) and 60.0% (15 of 25) of the samples that were positive for C. perfringens, respectively. Of the 25 C. perfringens isolates, 15 (60%) were type A and 10 (40%) were type C. Type C was observed on all the farms where the foals' deaths occurred. None of the isolates were positive...
Storage procedures and time influence the detectability of Clostridium difficile toxin A but not toxin B in porcine fecal specimens. Storage procedures are known to affect the detectability of toxins in equine and human feces. We assessed the impact of different storage conditions on the detectability of toxins in swine feces. Specimens were inoculated with toxins, 112 ng/g of toxin A (TcdA) and 16 ng/g of toxin B (TcdB) and subjected to the following 3 storage treatments: 4°C, -30°C, repetitive freezing at -30°C and thawing. Toxin determination was assessed at 1, 2, 7, 14, and 21 d with ELISA. A decrease in concentrations of TcdA with time was observed for samples stored at 4°C and repetitive freezing-thawing ( ≤0....
Clostridium difficile isolates derived from Czech horses are resistant to enrofloxacin; cluster to clades 1 and 5 and ribotype 033 predominates. Clostridium difficile has been recovered from the faeces of several animal species as well as horses. Between April 2015 and October 2016, 213 samples of faeces from non-hospitalized (n = 138) and hospitalized horses (n = 75) were investigated and eighteen C. difficile isolates were cultured using an enrichment method. Sixteen C. difficile positive samples were identified from hospitalised horses (p < 0.01). Molecular typing revealed seven ribotypes and sequence types (RT033/ST11 n = 8, 44.4%; RT081/ST9 n = 4, 22.2%; RT009/ST3 n = 2, 11.1%; RT003/ST12 n = 1, 5.6%;...
Antimicrobial Susceptibility and Clonal Relationship of Tetracycline Resistance Genes in netF-Positive Clostridium perfringens. NetF-producing type A Clostridium perfringens, a pathotype of C. perfringens, causes necrotizing enteritis in neonatal foals and necrotizing and hemorrhagic enteritis in dogs. Recent core genome multilocus sequence typing study revealed that netF+ C. perfringens strains belong to two distinct clonal populations (clonal complexes I and II). There are no reports on susceptibility to antimicrobial drugs of isolates from this pathotype. The susceptibility to 13 different antimicrobial drugs of 49 netF+ strains recovered from foals or dogs with necrotizing enteritis in Canada, the United States, an...
Diagnosis and Treatment of Undifferentiated and Infectious Acute Diarrhea in the Adult Horse. Acute, infectious, diarrhea in adult horses is a major cause of morbidity and is associated with numerous complications. Common causes include salmonellosis, clostridiosis, Coronavirus, and infection with Neorickettsia risticii (Potomac horse fever). Treatment is empirical and supportive until results of specific diagnostic tests are available. Supportive care is aimed at restoring hydration, correcting electrolyte imbalances, and limiting the systemic inflammatory response. The mainstays of therapy are intravenous fluid therapy, electrolyte supplementation where necessary, nonsteroidal anti-i...
Exploration of the Fecal Microbiota and Biomarker Discovery in Equine Grass Sickness. Equine grass sickness (EGS) is a frequently fatal disease of horses, responsible for the death of 1 to 2% of the U.K. horse population annually. The etiology of this disease is currently uncharacterized, although there is evidence it is associated with Clostridium botulinum neurotoxin in the gut. Prevention is currently not possible, and ileal biopsy diagnosis is invasive. The aim of this study was to characterize the fecal microbiota and biofluid metabolic profiles of EGS horses, to further understand the mechanisms underlying this disease, and to identify metabolic biomarkers to aid in diagn...
Infectious necrotic hepatitis caused by Clostridium novyi type B in a horse: case report and review of the literature. A 14-y-old bay Quarter Horse gelding was presented with progressive neurologic signs, elevated rectal temperature, and icterus for 3 d prior to death. Postmortem examination revealed icterus, large amounts of serosanguineous fluid in the abdominal cavity, widespread petechiae and ecchymoses in several organs, and a large, pale, and well-demarcated focus of necrosis in the liver. Histologically, there was coagulative necrosis surrounded by a rim of inflammatory cells and large numbers of gram-positive rods, which were identified as Clostridium novyi by immunohistochemistry. Liver samples tested...
Necrotizing hepatitis associated with Clostridium novyi in a pony in western Canada. Severe icterus, peritoneal effusion, localized fibrinous peritonitis, and necrotizing hepatitis were found at necropsy of a 20-year-old female pony with a history of acute onset depression, inappetence, fever, and marked elevation in hepatic enzymes. Gross pathology, histopathology, and immunohistochemistry were compatible with a diagnosis of clostridial hepatitis caused by Clostridium novyi-group bacteria. This is believed to be the first reported case of clostridial hepatitis in an equid in Canada, and only the third report of this rare disease in North America. Hépatite nécrosante associ...
NetF-producing Clostridium perfringens: Clonality and plasmid pathogenicity loci analysis. Clostridium perfringens is an important cause of foal necrotizing enteritis and canine acute hemorrhagic diarrhea. A major virulence determinant of the strains associated with these diseases appears to be a beta-sheet pore-forming toxin, NetF, encoded within a pathogenicity locus (NetF locus) on a large tcp-conjugative plasmid. Strains producing NetF also produce the putative toxin NetE, encoded within the same pathogenicity locus, as well as CPE enterotoxin and CPB2 on a second plasmid, and sometimes the putative toxin NetG within a pathogenicity locus (NetG locus) on another separate large c...
Duodenitis-Proximal Jejunitis in Horses After Experimental Administration of Clostridium difficile Toxins. Duodenitis-proximal jejunitis (DPJ) is an acute sporadic gastrointestinal disorder of horses of unknown cause. Objective: We hypothesize that Clostridium difficile toxins are involved in the pathogenesis of DPJ in horses. The objective of this study was to determine whether experimentally delivered C. difficile toxins cause clinical signs and histologic lesions similar to those of naturally occurring DPJ. Methods: Six healthy mature mixed breed horses. Methods: Experimental study: animal model of animal disease. Fasted horses were administered crude C. difficile toxins via gastroscopy and moni...