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Topic:Encephalitis
Encephalitis in horses refers to inflammation of the brain, which can be caused by various infectious agents, including viruses, bacteria, and parasites. This condition affects the central nervous system and can lead to neurological symptoms such as ataxia, seizures, and changes in behavior. Common viral causes of equine encephalitis include Eastern Equine Encephalitis (EEE), Western Equine Encephalitis (WEE), and West Nile Virus (WNV). Diagnosis often involves clinical evaluation, serological testing, and sometimes cerebrospinal fluid analysis. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the etiology, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, and management of encephalitis in horses.
A Quantitative Real-Time RT-PCR Assay for the Detection of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus Utilizing a Universal Alphavirus Control RNA. (VEEV) is an from the family that causes epizootic outbreaks in equids and humans in Central and South America. So far, most studies use conventional reverse transcriptase PCR assays for the detection of the different VEEV subtypes. Here we describe the development of a TaqMan quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase PCR assay for the specific detection and quantitation of all VEEV subtypes which uses in parallel a universal equine encephalitis virus control RNA carrying target sequences of the three equine encephalitis viruses. The control RNA was used to generate standard curves for t...
A Serological Protein Microarray for Detection of Multiple Cross-Reactive Flavivirus Infections in Horses for Veterinary and Public Health Surveillance. The genus Flavivirus in the family Flaviviridae includes some of the most important examples of emerging zoonotic arboviruses that are rapidly spreading across the globe. Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), West Nile virus (WNV), St. Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) and Usutu virus (USUV) are mosquito-borne members of the JEV serological group. Although most infections in humans are asymptomatic or present with mild flu-like symptoms, clinical manifestations of JEV, WNV, SLEV, USUV and tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) can include severe neurological disease and death. In horses, infection wi...
Host associations of mosquitoes at eastern equine encephalitis virus foci in Connecticut, USA. Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) is a highly pathogenic mosquito-borne arbovirus, with active transmission foci in freshwater hardwood swamps in eastern North America, where enzootic transmission is maintained between the ornithophilic mosquito, Culiseta melanura, and wild passerine birds. The role of other locally abundant mosquito species in virus transmission and their associations with vertebrate hosts as sources of blood meals within these foci are largely unknown but are of importance in clarifying the dynamics of enzootic and epidemic/epizootic transmission. Blood-engorged mosqu...
Evaluation of the Honey-Card Technique for Detection of Transmission of Arboviruses in Florida and Comparison With Sentinel Chicken Seroconversion. Zoonotic mosquito-borne viruses, such as the West Nile virus (WNV) and eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV), are major public health threats in the United States. Early detection of virus transmission and targeted vector management are critical to protect humans against these pathogens. Sentinel chickens and pool screening of mosquitoes, the most widely used methods of arbovirus early detection, have technical time-lags that compromise their early-detection value. The exploitation of sugar-feeding by trapped mosquitoes for arbovirus surveillance may represent a viable alternative to other ...
Culex Tarsalis Mosquitoes as Vectors of Highlands J Virus. Highlands J virus (HJV) is an alphavirus closely related to western equine encephalitis virus (WEEV) and eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV). HJV is an avian pathogen with the potential for disruption of poultry operations, but is not known to cause human or equine disease. HJV has only been identified in the eastern United States and is thought to have a transmission cycle similar to that of EEEV involving Culiseta melanura mosquitoes and birds. However, HJV is more genetically similar to WEEV and it remains unclear if it may be transmitted by Culex species mosquitoes like WEEV. Seven st...
A Phase 1 clinical trial of a DNA vaccine for Venezuelan equine encephalitis delivered by intramuscular or intradermal electroporation. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV), a mosquito-borne alphavirus, causes periodic epizootics in equines and is a recognized biological defense threat for humans. There are currently no FDA-licensed vaccines against VEEV. We developed a candidate DNA vaccine expressing the E3-E2-6K-E1 genes of VEEV (pWRG/VEE) and performed a Phase 1 clinical study to assess the vaccine's safety, reactogenicity, tolerability, and immunogenicity when administered by intramuscular (IM) or intradermal (ID) electroporation (EP) using the Ichor Medical Systems TriGrid™ Delivery System. Subjects in IM-EP gro...
No evidence of Sarcocystis calchasi involvement in mammalian meningoencephalitis of unknown origin. Sarcocystis calchasi has recently been identified as the cause of pigeon protozoal encephalitis, PPE, a lethal brain disease in pigeons and parrots. While only avian species have been identified so far to be susceptible to this pathogen as definitive or intermediate hosts, we speculated whether mammals may be susceptible as well, as in Sarcocystis neurona and other related apicomplexan parasites. Specifically, we hypothesized its involvement in mammalian meningoencephalitis of unknown origin, MUO. A total of 143 archived formalin fixed, paraffin embedded brain samples with MUO from dogs, cats,...
Serosurvey Reveals Exposure to West Nile Virus in Asymptomatic Horse Populations in Central Spain Prior to Recent Disease Foci. West Nile fever/encephalitis (WNF) is an infectious disease affecting horses, birds and humans, with a cycle involving birds as natural reservoirs and mosquitoes as transmission vectors. It is a notifiable disease, re-emerging in Europe. In Spain, it first appeared in horses in the south (Andalusia) in 2010, where outbreaks occur every year since. However, in 2014, an outbreak was declared in horses in central Spain, approximately 200 km away from the closest foci in Andalusia. Before that, evidence of West Nile virus (WNV) circulation in central Spain had been obtained only from wildlife, bu...
The Brain of the Domestic Bos taurus: Weight, Encephalization and Cerebellar Quotients, and Comparison with Other Domestic and Wild Cetartiodactyla. The domestic bovine Bos taurus is raised worldwide for meat and milk production, or even for field work. However the functional anatomy of its central nervous system has received limited attention and most of the reported data in textbooks and reviews are derived from single specimens or relatively old literature. Here we report information on the brain of Bos taurus obtained by sampling 158 individuals, 150 of which at local abattoirs and 8 in the dissecting room, these latter subsequently formalin-fixed. Using body weight and fresh brain weight we calculated the Encephalization Quotient (EQ)...
Geography and Timing of Cases of Eastern Equine Encephalitis in New York State from 1992 to 2012. In New York State (NYS), Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE) was first reported in a human in 1971, in horses in 1970, and in pheasants in 1952. Methods: Following work for the interval from 1970 to 1991, we identified cases in vertebrates from 1992 to 2012, through a passive surveillance system involving veterinarians in clinical practice, county health departments, and the Departments of Agriculture and Markets, Environmental Conservation, and Health, of the State of New York. Results: During an 11-year hiatus, from 1992 to 2002, no case in any vertebrate was observed. In a re-emergence, from ...
[EPIDEMIOLOGIC ANALYSIS OF OUTBREAKS OF DISEASES CAUSED BY AMERICAN EQUINE ENCEPHALITIS CAUSATIVE AGENTS IN ENDEMIC REGIONS]. Epidemiologic analysis of epidemic outbreaks caused by American equine encephalitis causative agents is carried out in the review. Eastern equine encephalomyelitis (EEE), Western equine encephalomyelitis (WEE) and Venezuela equine encephalomyelitis (VEE) viruses are etiologic agents of dangerous transmissive diseases that are usually accompanied by fever and neurologic symptoms. Among the New World alphaviruses, VEE virus has the most potential danger for humans and domestic animals. Currently, enzootic strains of VEE play an increasing role as etiologic agents of human diseases. Most of the V...
Immunohistochemistry for the detection of neural and inflammatory cells in equine brain tissue. Phenotypic characterization of cellular responses in equine infectious encephalitides has had limited description of both peripheral and resident cell populations in central nervous system (CNS) tissues due to limited species-specific reagents that react with formalin-fixed, paraffin embedded tissue (FFPE). This study identified a set of antibodies for investigating the immunopathology of infectious CNS diseases in horses. Multiple commercially available staining reagents and antibodies derived from antigens of various species for manual immunohistochemistry (IHC) were screened. Several techni...
Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus Induces Apoptosis through the Unfolded Protein Response Activation of EGR1. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is a previously weaponized arthropod-borne virus responsible for causing acute and fatal encephalitis in animal and human hosts. The increased circulation and spread in the Americas of VEEV and other encephalitic arboviruses, such as eastern equine encephalitis virus and West Nile virus, underscore the need for research aimed at characterizing the pathogenesis of viral encephalomyelitis for the development of novel medical countermeasures. The host-pathogen dynamics of VEEV Trinidad donkey-infected human astrocytoma U87MG cells were determined by car...
Japanese encephalitis. Japanese encephalitis (JE) is an inflammation of the central nervous system in humans and animals, specifically horses and cattle. The disease, which can sometimes be fatal, is caused by the flavivirus Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), of which there are five genotypes (genotypes 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5). The transmission cycle of the virus involves pigs and wild birds as virus amplifiers and mosquitoes as vectors for transferring the virus between amplifying hosts and to dead- end hosts, i.e. humans, horses and cattle. In horses and cattle the disease is usually asymptomatic, but when clinical sign...
Vector-Host Interactions of Culiseta melanura in a Focus of Eastern Equine Encephalitis Virus Activity in Southeastern Virginia. Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) causes a highly pathogenic mosquito-borne zoonosis that is responsible for sporadic outbreaks of severe illness in humans and equines in the eastern USA. Culiseta (Cs.) melanura is the primary vector of EEEV in most geographic regions but its feeding patterns on specific avian and mammalian hosts are largely unknown in the mid-Atlantic region. The objectives of our study were to: 1) identify avian hosts of Cs. melanura and evaluate their potential role in enzootic amplification of EEEV, 2) assess spatial and temporal patterns of virus activity during a ...
First isolation of Bunyamwera virus (Bunyaviridae family) from horses with neurological disease and an abortion in Argentina. Bunyamwera virus (BUNV) is the prototype virus for both the Orthobunyavirus genus and the Bunyaviridae family. Different strains of BUNV have been associated with clinical diseases in domestic animals, mainly ruminants. During 2013, in Argentina's Santa Fe Province, three new isolates of BUNV were recovered from the brain and spleen of two horses with encephalitis, and from the brain of an aborted equine fetus. This isolation of BUNV from domestic animals provided the first association of BUNV infection with disease of the central nervous system and abortion in equines in Argentina.
Antibody and Viral Nucleic Acid Testing of Serum and Cerebrospinal Fluid for Diagnosis of Eastern Equine Encephalitis. Eastern equine encephalitis diagnostic serum antibody can appear 6 days after the onset of symptoms, and its numbers can increase 4-fold in 4 days, arguing for early and frequent serum testing. In populations where cerebrospinal fluid viral nucleic acid testing sensitivity and specificity remain undetermined, cerebrospinal antibody testing should also be performed.
IRES-Containing VEEV Vaccine Protects Cynomolgus Macaques from IE Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis Virus Aerosol Challenge. Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) is an arbovirus endemic to the Americas that is responsible for severe, sometimes fatal, disease in humans and horses. We previously described an IRES-based VEE vaccine candidate based up the IE serotype that offers complete protection against a lethal subtype IE VEEV challenge in mice. Here we demonstrate the IRES-based vaccine's ability to protect against febrile disease in cynomolgus macaques. Vaccination was well tolerated and elicited robust neutralizing antibody titers noticed as early as day 14. Moreover, complete protection from disease chara...
The ubiquitin proteasome system plays a role in venezuelan equine encephalitis virus infection. Many viruses have been implicated in utilizing or modulating the Ubiquitin Proteasome System (UPS) to enhance viral multiplication and/or to sustain a persistent infection. The mosquito-borne Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) belongs to the Togaviridae family and is an important biodefense pathogen and select agent. There are currently no approved vaccines or therapies for VEEV infections; therefore, it is imperative to identify novel targets for therapeutic development. We hypothesized that a functional UPS is required for efficient VEEV multiplication. We have shown that at non-tox...
Occurrence of West Nile virus antibodies in wild birds, horses, and humans in Poland. Serum samples of 474 wild birds, 378 horses, and 42 humans with meningitis and lymphocytic meningitis were collected between 2010 and 2014 from different areas of Poland. West Nile virus (WNV) antibodies were detected using competition enzyme linked immunosorbent assays: ELISA-1 ID Screen West Nile Competition, IDvet, ELISA-2 ID Screen West Nile IgM Capture, and ELISA-3 Ingezim West Nile Compac. The antibodies were found in 63 (13.29%) out of 474 wild bird serum samples and in one (0.26%) out of 378 horse serum samples. Fourteen (33.33%) out of 42 sera from patients were positive against WNV a...
A case of Murray Valley encephalitis in a 2-year-old Australian Stock Horse in south-east Queensland. This report summarises the findings from a case of naturally-occurring Murray Valley encephalitis in a 2-year-old filly presenting with acute onset of depression and weakness. Serum samples tested at the onset of clinical signs were negative for Hendra and Kunjin virus antibodies, but positive for Murray Valley encephalitis virus (MVEV) using IgM-capture ELISA (1 : 300 dilution). A virus neutralisation assay performed 4 weeks later confirmed a titre of 1 : 160. Sera collected in the weeks preceding neurological signs returned a negative titre for MVEV 2 weeks prior followed by a titre ...
Eastern equine encephalitis: a classical case. We present the case of a 40-year-old man with rapidly deteriorating acute meningoencephalitis, finally diagnosed as eastern equine encephalitis (EEE). The course and timing in this patient are quite characteristic. EEE is an arthropod borneviral illness in which the mosquito serves as the vector. It is amongst the most severe of the arbovirus encephalitides and has a high mortality and morbidity. In nonfatal cases, residual neurological deficits are often severe and permanent. North American lineage of EEE is mainly found in the northeast especially along the coastal areas. EEE is primarily fo...
Emergence of Equine West Nile Encephalitis in Central Macedonia, Greece, 2010. During the summer of 2010, an outbreak of West Nile virus (WNV) infections attributed to a lineage 2 WNV strain was reported among humans and horses in Central Macedonia, Northern Greece. Here, the clinical and laboratory investigation of horses that showed severe neurological signs due to WNV infection is being described. Specifically, between August and September 2010, 17 horses with neurological signs were detected. WNV infection was confirmed in all 17 clinical cases by applying laboratory testing. The duration of WNV-specific IgM antibodies in sera obtained from seven of the clinically af...
Necrotizing Enteritis and Hyperammonemic Encephalopathy Associated With Equine Coronavirus Infection in Equids. Equine coronavirus (ECoV) is a Betacoronavirus recently associated clinically and epidemiologically with emerging outbreaks of pyrogenic, enteric, and/or neurologic disease in horses in the United States, Japan, and Europe. We describe the pathologic, immunohistochemical, ultrastructural, and molecular findings in 2 horses and 1 donkey that succumbed to natural infection with ECoV. One horse and the donkey (case Nos. 1, 3) had severe diffuse necrotizing enteritis with marked villous attenuation, epithelial cell necrosis at the tips of the villi, neutrophilic and fibrinous extravasation into th...
Neutralising antibodies for Mayaro virus in Pantanal, Brazil. The Pantanal hosts diverse wildlife species and therefore is a hotspot for arbovirus studies in South America. A serosurvey for Mayaro virus (MAYV), eastern (EEEV), western (WEEV) and Venezuelan (VEEV) equine encephalitis viruses was conducted with 237 sheep, 87 free-ranging caimans and 748 equids, including 37 collected from a ranch where a neurologic disorder outbreak had been recently reported. Sera were tested for specific viral antibodies using plaque-reduction neutralisation test. From a total of 748 equids, of which 264 were immunised with vaccine composed of EEEV and WEEV and 484 had n...
Quantitative molecular viral loads in 7 horses with naturally occurring equine herpesvirus-1 infection. Data associating quantitative viral load with severity, clinical signs and survival in equine herpesvirus-1 myeloencephalopathy (EHM) have not been reported. Objective: To report the clinical signs, treatment, and temporal progression of viral loads in 7 horses with naturally occurring EHM and to examine the association of these factors with survival. Methods: Retrospective case series. Methods: The population included 7 horses with EHM presented to the University of California, Davis William R. Pritchard Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital from May to September 2011. Horses were graded using...
Safety and immunogenicity of a delta inulin-adjuvanted inactivated Japanese encephalitis virus vaccine in pregnant mares and foals. In 2011, following severe flooding in Eastern Australia, an unprecedented epidemic of equine encephalitis occurred in South-Eastern Australia, caused by Murray Valley encephalitis virus (MVEV) and a new variant strain of Kunjin virus, a subtype of West Nile virus (WNVKUN). This prompted us to assess whether a delta inulin-adjuvanted, inactivated cell culture-derived Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) vaccine (JE-ADVAX™) could be used in horses, including pregnant mares and foals, to not only induce immunity to JEV, but also elicit cross-protective antibodies against MVEV and WNVKUN. Foals, 74...
West nile virus and equine encephalitis viruses: new perspectives. Mosquito-borne diseases affect horses worldwide. Mosquito-borne diseases generally cause encephalomyelitis in the horse and can be difficult to diagnose antemortem. In addition to general disease, and diagnostic and treatment aspects, this review article summarizes the latest information on these diseases, covering approximately the past 5 years, with a focus on new equine disease encroachments, diagnostic and vaccination aspects, and possible therapeutics on the horizon.
A Saint Louis encephalitis and Rocio virus serosurvey in Brazilian horses. Arboviruses are an important public health problem in Brazil, in especially flaviviruses, including the Saint Louis encephalitis virus (SLEV) and the Rocio virus (ROCV), are especially problematic. These viruses are transmitted to humans or other vertebrates through arthropod bites and may cause diseases with clinical manifestations that range from asymptomatic infection, viral hemorrhagic fever to encephalitis. Methods: A serological survey of horses from various regions of Brazil using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) with recombinant SLEV domain III peptides and ROCV E protein a...
