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Topic:Exercise
Exercise in horses encompasses the physical activities that horses engage in, either through natural behaviors or structured training programs. These activities impact a horse's musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, and respiratory systems, influencing overall health and performance. Exercise can vary in intensity, duration, and frequency, and its effects are studied to understand conditioning, endurance, and recovery processes in equines. Research in this field often focuses on the physiological adaptations to different types of exercise, the prevention of exercise-related injuries, and the optimization of training regimens for various equestrian disciplines. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the physiological, biomechanical, and health-related aspects of exercise in horses.
Feeding grape seed extract to horses: effects on health, intake and digestion. A feeding trial involving four Thoroughbred race horses was undertaken to establish whether inclusion of grape seed extract (GSE) in the diet of horses undergoing mild exercise had any effects on their general health, intake and digestion. Supplementation with GSE had no effect on either feed or water intake of the horses and the supplement was readily palatable to the horses at all levels of inclusion. Feeding GSE caused no adverse effects in terms of animal health (temperature, pulse and respirations rates), and there were some positive effects related to a presumed alteration in fermentatio...
Ultrasonographic assessment of laryngohyoid position as a predictor of dorsal displacement of the soft palate in horses. Dorsal displacement of the soft palate is an important cause of poor performance in racehorses, yet its etiology is not fully understood. Diagnosis requires treadmill videoendoscopy, which is not widely available. The relationship of the larynx, the hyoid apparatus, and the remainder of the skull may be important in predisposing horses to dorsal displacement of the soft palate. We hypothesized that this relationship could be accurately assessed in unsedated horses through ultrasonographic examination. Fifty-six racehorses presented for evaluation of poor performance were subjected to treadmill...
Effect of loading on the organization of the collagen fibril network in juvenile equine articular cartilage. We investigated the effects of exercise-induced loading on the collagen network of equine articular cartilage. Collagen fibril architecture at a site (1) subjected to intermittent high-intensity loading was compared with that of an adjacent site (2) sustaining continuous low-level load. From horses exposed to forced exercise (CONDEX group) or not (PASTEX group), the spatial parallelism of fibrils and the orientation angle between fibrils and the surface at depths 9 microm apart through cartilage from surface to tidemark were determined using polarized light microscopy, and expressed as paralle...
Malignant hyperthermia associated with ryanodine receptor 1 (C7360G) mutation in Quarter Horses. Anesthetic-induced malignant hyperthermia (MH) has been documented in Quarter Horses with a single point mutation in the ryanodine receptor 1 gene (RyR1) at nucleotide C7360G, generating a R2454G amino acid substitution. However, there have been no reports of nonanesthetic manifestations of MH in horses with the C7360G mutation. Objective: To describe clinical manifestations of Quarter Horses with the C7360G mutation. Methods: Eleven Quarter Horses with the RyR1 C7360G mutation. Methods: This prospective study included horses with suspected MH, undetermined etiology of sudden death, death with...
Thyroid function in anhidrotic horses. This study was performed to determine whether anhidrotic horses have altered thyroid function compared with horses that sweat normally. Objective: Anhidrotic horses have normal thyroid function. Methods: Ten client-owned horses with clinical signs of anhidrosis were paired with 10 horses living in the same environment that had normal sweat production. Methods: Horses were diagnosed as having normal sweat production or being anhidrotic based on responses to intradermal injections of terbutaline and physiologic responses to lunging exercise. Control horses were selected from the same environment...
Days lost from training by two- and three-year-old Thoroughbred horses: a survey of seven UK training yards. The first major epidemiological study of injury incidence in the UK flat racing Thoroughbred (TB), published in 1985, found lameness to be the single largest reason for days when horses failed to train. It was considered advisable to ascertain if progress has been made in reducing the problem of musculoskeletal injuries in the intervening period. Objective: To quantify injury incidence and days lost from training by 2- and 3-year-old TBs in UK training yards during 2002 and 2003. Methods: One-hundred-and-eighty-two yearling TBs were recruited at the end of 2001 and daily training and injury re...
Implications of different degrees of arytenoid cartilage abduction on equine upper airway characteristics. The necessary degree of arytenoid cartilage abduction (ACA) to restore airway patency at maximal exercise has not been determined. Objective: Use computational fluid dynamics modelling to measure the effects of different degrees of ACA on upper airway characteristics of horses during exercise. Objective: Maximal ACA by laryngoplasty is necessary to restore normal peak airflow and pressure in Thoroughbred racehorses with laryngeal hemiplegia. Methods: The upper airway was modeled with the left arytenoid in 3 different positions: maximal abduction; 88% cross-sectional area of the rima glottis; a...
Clinical trials using a telemetric endoscope for use during over-ground exercise: a preliminary study. Dynamic collapse of the upper respiratory tract (URT) is a common cause of poor performance in horses. These conditions occur predominantly during strenuous exercise when the URT is unable to maintain dilation in the face of high inspiratory pressures. In most cases, these disorders cannot be accurately diagnosed during a resting endoscopic examination. To date, a definitive diagnosis of dynamic URT obstructions has been possible only by performing an endoscopic examination during high-speed treadmill exercise. However, recent technological advances now enable URT endoscopy to be performed whi...
Influence of time of day on body temperature, heart rate, arterial pressure, and other biological variables in horses during incremental exercise. We examined the response to exercise of selected physiological variables in horses performing the identical routine for eight days, in the morning (a.m.) or in the afternoon (p.m.). Heart rate (HR), systolic and diastolic blood pressure (BP), and body temperature (BT) were all consistently greater in the p.m. For BP and BT, the absolute increase above the a.m. values was the same at rest and during exercise. For HR, the absolute increase was greater during exercise, but the percent increase was the same as during rest. During exercise, blood glucose decreased, while blood lactate and skin temp...
Response of biochemical markers of bone metabolism to exercise intensity in thoroughbred horses. We studied the response of biochemical markers of bone metabolism to exercise intensity in horses. Four horses were walked on a mechanical walker for one week (pre-exercise). Then they performed low-speed exercise on a high-speed treadmill in the first week and medium-speed exercise in the second week and high-speed exercise in the third week of training. We measured two indices of bone resorption, serum hydroxyproline concentration and the urinary deoxypyridinoline/creatinine ratio, and serum osteocalcin (OC) concentration as an index of bone formation. Both indices of bone resorption gradual...
Effects of trunk deformation on trunk center of mass mechanical energy estimates in the moving horse, Equus caballus. The estimation of the position of the center of mass (CM) is essential in a wide range of biomechanical analyses. In horses, the majority of the body mass is contained in the trunk and in most studies, the trunk is assumed to be rigid. However, this rigidity assumption has not been tested. We quantified changes in the position of the trunk CM due to external shape changes by measuring the kinematics of a mesh encompassing the trunk. Using a frame of reference fixed to the horse's spine, we described the shape deformation of the trunk during walking. In addition, we tested for speed and individ...
Exercise-induced metacarpophalangeal joint adaptation in the Thoroughbred racehorse. Repetitive bone injury and development of stress fracture is a common problem in humans and animals. The Thoroughbred racehorse is a model in which adaptive failure and associated development of stress fracture is common. We performed a histologic study of the distal end of the third metacarpal bone in two groups of horses: young Thoroughbreds that were actively racing (n = 10) and a group of non-athletic horses (n = 8). The purpose of this study was to determine whether development of articular microcracks was associated with specific alterations to subchondral plate osteocytes. Morphometric ...
Incidence rate of musculoskeletal injuries and determinants of time to recovery in young Australian Thoroughbred racehorses. To describe the incidence rate of musculoskeletal (MS) injuries and investigate the factors that influence recovery from MS injury in young Thoroughbred horses in Australia. Methods: Training and injury data were collected at fortnightly intervals from 14 trainers in New South Wales. Incidence rates were calculated for initial injuries stratified by age-class and sex. Survival analysis methods were used to investigate the time to recovery after the first MS injury (measured as a start in a race or barrier trial). Results: For the 248 racehorses enrolled, there were 428 injuries recorded; 2-yea...
Transient increase with strenuous exercise of plasma levels of glycosaminoglycans in humans and horses. Plasma glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) were isolated and purified by chromatographic procedures in healthy humans and horses before and after physical exercise. A weak anion exchange resin was used to separate polyanions. Humans exercised on a cycloergometer, while horses were exercised on a treadmill and in show jumping competition. Some GAGs were isolated from untreated plasma and operationally defined as native proteoglycans (PGs), while the total GAG amount was isolated from mild alkali treated plasma. Plasma GAG concentrations in terms of galactosamine and galactose, the respective components o...
Polysaccharide storage myopathy phenotype in quarter horse-related breeds is modified by the presence of an RYR1 mutation. In this study we examined a family of Quarter Horses with Polysaccharide Storage Myopathy (PSSM) with a dominant mutation in the skeletal muscle glycogen synthase (GYS1) gene. A subset of horses within this family had a more severe and occasionally fatal PSSM phenotype. The purpose of this study was to identify a modifying gene(s) for the severe clinical phenotype. A genetic association analysis was used to identify RYR1 as a candidate modifying gene. A rare, known equine RYR1 mutation, associated with malignant hyperthermia (MH), was found to segregate in this GYS1 PSSM family. Retrospective ...
Effects of intravenous administration of caffeine on physiologic variables in exercising horses. To investigate the effect of acute administration of caffeine on the athletic performance of Arabian horses. Methods: 12 healthy adult Arabian horses that were trained for exercise on a treadmill. Methods: By use of a crossover study design, horses received each of the following treatments: IV administration of caffeine (5 mg/kg) and IV administration of approximately the same volume of saline (0.9% NaCl) solution. Order of treatment was randomized, and there was a 10-day interval between treatments. Thirty minutes after treatments, horses underwent an incremental exercise test (IET) on a trea...
Limits to running speed in dogs, horses and humans. Are there absolute limits to the speed at which animals can run? If so, how close are present-day individuals to these limits? I approach these questions by using three statistical models and data from competitive races to estimate maximum running speeds for greyhounds, thoroughbred horses and elite human athletes. In each case, an absolute speed limit is definable, and the current record approaches that predicted maximum. While all such extrapolations must be used cautiously, these data suggest that there are limits to the ability of either natural or artificial selection to produce ever fast...
Resting concentrations of cardiac troponin I in fit horses and effect of racing. To determine normal resting values for cardiac troponin I (cTnI) in healthy Standardbred, Thoroughbred and Warmblood horses and investigate if racing has an influence on cTnI concentrations. Background: Measuring cTnI concentrations in plasma is the gold standard for detecting myocardial injury in humans. Cardiac troponin I is highly conserved between species and has gained interest as a marker for cardiac injury in horses. Increased levels of cTnI have been reported in association with endurance and short-term strenuous exercise on a treadmill in horses. However, the effect of true racing con...
Effect of sucralfate on total carbon dioxide concentration in horses subjected to a simulated race test. The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that sucralfate, a gastric ulcer medication, would alter plasma concentrations of total carbon dioxide (tCO2), lactate (LA), sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), chloride (Cl-) and total protein (TP), as well as calculated plasma strong ion difference (SID) and packed cell volume (PCV) in horses subjected to a simulated race test (SRT). Six unfit Standardbred mares (approximately 520 kg, 9-18 years) were used in a randomized crossover design with the investigators blinded to the treatment given. The horses were assigned to either a control (40-50 m...
Physical activity: does long-term, high-intensity exercise in horses result in tendon degeneration? This study explores the hypothesis that high-intensity exercise induces degenerative changes in the injury-prone equine superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT), but not in the rarely injured common digital extensor tendon (CDET). The horse represents a large-animal model that is applicable to human tendon and ligament physiology and pathology. Twelve age-matched female horses undertook galloping exercise three times a week with trotting exercise on alternative days (high-intensity group, n = 6) or only walking exercise (low-intensity group, n = 6) for 18 mo. The SDFT, suspensory ligament, dee...
(Over)training effects on quantitative electromyography and muscle enzyme activities in standardbred horses. Too intensive training may lead to overreaching or overtraining. To study whether quantitative needle electromyography (QEMG) is more sensitive to detect training (mal)adaptation than muscle enzyme activities, 12 standardbred geldings trained for 32 wk in age-, breed-, and sex-matched fixed pairs. After a habituation and normal training (NT) phase (phases 1 and 2, 4 and 18 wk, respectively), with increasing intensity and duration and frequency of training sessions, an intensified training (IT) group (phase 3, 6 wk) and a control group (which continued training as in the last week of phase 2) w...
Effects of vitamin E and selenium on serum trace and major elements in horses. The combined effects of vitamin E and selenium were studied in native Anatolian horses subject to strenuous exercise. The concentrations of copper, zinc, iron, calcium, potassium, and magnesium were determined in serum by atomic absorption spectrometry in two study groups (n = 25 each), one of which served as untreated controls. After exercising the horses by running 1,500 m in about 7 min, only the copper level and the copper/zinc ratio significantly increased (p < 0.05), but the concentrations of calcium, potassium, iron, and magnesium remained unchanged. In horses treated with vitamin E ...
Exercise does not affect stiffness and mineralisation of third metacarpal condylar subarticular calcified tissues in 2 year old thoroughbred racehorses. Impact exercise has a profound effect in increasing volumetric density of epiphyseal bone, as clearly shown in 2 year old thoroughbred racehorses from which we derived the tissue studied in the present investigation. Here, we asked the question whether the fabric-level properties of the mineralised tissues immediately below hyaline articular cartilage which transmit the extra loads are themselves altered in consequence. We therefore studied the nanoindentation elastic modulus and its relationship to the concentration of mineral determined by quantitative backscattered electron imaging in the h...
Osteochondral injury increases type II collagen degradation products (C2C) in synovial fluid of Thoroughbred racehorses. To investigate the effects of exercise and osteochondral (OC) injury on type II collagen degradation products (collagenase cleavage neoepitope commercially known as C2C) in synovial fluid (SF) from Thoroughbred (TB) racehorses and to compare these results with radiographic and arthroscopic scores of severity of joint injury. Methods: Metacarpophalangeal/metatarsophalangeal (MCP/MTP) and carpal SF was obtained from (1) 20 normal rested horses, (2) the same horses after 5 to 6 months of race training, and (3) 27 horses with OC injury from racing. For group 3, radiographic and arthroscopic scores...
Validation of thromboelastometry in horses. Thromboelastometry is used for identifying or monitoring coagulation abnormalities. It has been validated in several species but not in horses and the characteristics of the equine thromboelastogram have not yet been detailed. Objective: The purpose of this study was to validate a thromboelastometer to be used with equine blood and to define the normal equine thromboelastogram. Methods: A Rotem-gamma thromboelastometer (Pentapharm GmbH, Munich, Germany) was used on 38 citrated blood samples to investigate native coagulation, the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways, the function of fibrinogen (lar...
Cardiac output determination by use of lithium dilution during exercise in horses. To compare cardiac output (CO) obtained by the lithium dilution method (LiDCO) with CO calculated from the Fick principle (FickCO), in horses maximally exercising on a high-speed treadmill. Methods: 13 Thoroughbreds. Methods: In part 1 of the study, 5 horses performed a warm-up (walk, trot, and canter) and exercise test (walk, trot, canter, and gallop [90% to 100% maximum oxygen consumption [{VO(2)max}]) with measurements of LiDCO and FickCO obtained simultaneously after 60 seconds at each exercise level, for a total of 7 measurements. In part 2 of the study, 8 horses performed a warm-up (walk...
Clinical pathology in the racing horse: the role of clinical pathology in assessing fitness and performance in the racehorse. Clinical pathology is frequently used in racehorses to screen for "fitness" to race and to screen for disease that may affect performance. The role of clinical pathology in exercise testing of racehorses is important, especially in the area of blood lactate responses to exercise. This article discusses the use of resting and dynamic clinical pathology in the racehorse, especially in respect to investigation of the state of training (or fitness) and detection of subclinical performance-limiting disease.
High-intensity exercise induces structural, compositional and metabolic changes in cuboidal bones–findings from an equine athlete model. Fatigue fracture of cuboidal bones occurs in the human foot as well as the equine carpus. The racehorse provides a naturally-occurring model to study the effects of high-intensity exercise on the morphology and metabolism of cuboidal bones. We studied both the mineral and the collagenous matrix of the third (C(3)) and radial (C(r)) carpal bones of raced and non-raced Thoroughbred (TB) horses. We hypothesised that racehorses would show increases in the mineral component of these bones and post-translational modifications of the collagenous matrix alongside changes in markers of collagen remodel...
Echocardiographic measurements of cardiac dimensions in normal Standardbred racehorses. The aim of this study was to obtain echocardiographic measurements and establish reference ranges for 14 parameters in Standardbred racehorses in training. Background: Several studies have been published about cardiac measurements in Thoroughbreds, Standardbreds, National Hunt horses, Warmbloods and ponies; however, not all parameters have been published for the Standardbred trotter in training. Methods: Thirty normal Standardbred racehorses in training were assessed by two-dimensional echocardiography (2-D) and M-mode echocardiography using standardized imaging planes. Mean values, standard d...
