Omneity® Pellets
All-In-One Vitamin & Mineral Pellet
Topic:Glucose
Glucose is a simple sugar that serves as a primary energy source for horses. It is metabolized through various biochemical pathways to support cellular functions and overall energy requirements. In equine physiology, glucose levels are influenced by factors such as diet, exercise, and metabolic health. Monitoring glucose concentrations is important for understanding metabolic conditions, such as insulin resistance and equine metabolic syndrome, which can affect a horse's health and performance. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the regulation, metabolism, and clinical implications of glucose in equine health.
Speed associated with plasma pH, oxygen content, total protein and urea in an 80 km race. To test the hypothesis that endurance performance may be related quantitatively to changes in blood, we measured selected blood variables then determined their reference ranges and associations with speed during an 80 km race. The plan had 46 horses in a 2 x 2 factorial design testing a potassium-free electrolyte mix and a vitamin supplement. Blood samples were collected before the race, at 21, 37, 56 and 80 km, and 20 min after finishing, for assay of haematocrit, plasma pH, pO2, pCO2, [Na+], [K+], [Ca++], [Mg++], [Cl-], lactate, glucose, urea, cortisol, alpha-tocopherol, ascorbate, creatine ...
Training-induced alterations in glucose metabolism during moderate-intensity exercise. In several species, physical conditioning (training) provokes a large shift in substrate utilisation during submaximal exercise. Few studies in horses have quantitatively examined these effects. Therefore, the effects of exercise training on plasma glucose kinetics during submaximal exercise were examined in 7 horses (5 Thoroughbred, 2 Standardbred; age 3-9 years) that had been paddock-rested for at least 6 months. Two days after determination of maximum aerobic capacity (VO2max), horses ran on a treadmill (4 degree incline) at 55% of VO2max (UT) for 60 min or until fatigue and then completed ...
Effects of fat adaptation on glucose kinetics and substrate oxidation during low-intensity exercise. This study was designed to determine the effects of fat adaptation on carbohydrate and fat oxidation in conditioned horses during low-intensity exercise. Five mature Arabians were studied. The study was conducted as a crossover design with 2 dietary periods, each of 10 week's duration: a) a control (CON) diet, and b) a fat-supplemented (FAT) diet. The total amount of digestible energy (DE) supplied by the fat in the CON and FAT diets was 7% and 29%, respectively. During each period, the horses completed exercise tests at the beginning of the period (Week 0) and after 5 and 10 weeks on the diet...
Changes in skeletal muscle GLUT4 content and muscle membrane glucose transport following 6 weeks of exercise training. This study examined changes in skeletal muscle GLUT4 content and glucose transport in isolated muscle membranes (GT) from horses before and 2 min after standardised submaximal exercise tests (SET) prior to and after completion of 6 weeks of training. Seven horses, age 3-9 years, body mass mean +/- s.e. 530 +/- 19 kg, and sedentary for at least 4 months, completed 6 weeks of training on a treadmill. An initial SET (UT) was performed on a 4 degree incline at a speed equivalent to 55% of pretraining VO2max and was repeated post-training at the same absolute workload (ABS). A third SET (REL) was p...
Effect of short-term exercise training on insulin sensitivity in obese and lean mares. Twelve untrained aged mares were used to determine whether 7 days of light exercise improved peripheral tissue insulin sensitivity. Mares were divided into obese-exercised (n = 3), obese-sedentary (n = 3), lean-exercised (n = 3) and lean-sedentary (n = 3) groups. The exercised groups were worked at a trot to a heart rate (HR) of not more than 140 beats/min for 30 min in a round pen. Each group was subjected to 3 euglycaemic hyperinsulinaemic clamps: prior to exercise (P), 24 h following the seventh exercise training session (E) and 9 days postexercise training (PE). Prior to exercise training,...
Metabolic and osmoregulatory function at low and high (3800 m) altitude. Altitude evokes physiological adjustments that include not only respiratory and cardiovascular properties, but also metabolic function, renal and endocrine responses. The purpose of the present study was designed to expand our understanding of the physiological process involved with acclimatisation to high altitude in equids. The study examined temporal effects on metabolic and osmoregulatory function in horses (n = 6) at rest and postexercise at 3800 m. Animals were studied at 225 m (Pb = 743 mmHg) and during a 10 day stay at altitude (Pb = 487 mmHg). Rest samples were taken 90 min postprandi...
Effect of training on age-related changes in plasma insulin and glucose. The purpose of the study was to determine whether 12 weeks of exercise training would affect plasma glucose and plasma insulin concentrations in young and older Standardbred mares. Eighteen healthy, unfit mares representing 3 age groups were used: young (Y = 6.8 +/- 0.4 years; n = 6), middle-aged (MA = 15.2 +/- 0.4; n = 6), and old (O = 27.0 +/- 0.2; n = 6). Pre- and post-training incremental exercise tests (GXT) were performed to measure plasma glucose and insulin concentration from immediately after, until 120 min postexercise. Training consisted of exercise 3 days/week (weeks 1-8) and 4 day...
Effects of cross-tying horses during 24 h of road transport. Transportation stress has been implicated as a predisposing factor to respiratory disease in horses. Cross-tying horses individually in stalls is common practice for transporting show and racehorses, but horses also travel in small groups or individually without being restricted by tying. The objective of this study was to compare physiological responses of horses travelling cross-tied or loose during 24 h of road transport. Ten horses were used in a cross-over design consisting of two 4 day trials. In the first trial, 6 horses were cross-tied, while 2 pairs of horses were loose in enclosed co...
Analysis of the variations of follicular fluid composition during follicular growth and maturation in the mare using proton nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR). Follicular development and ovulatory processes in mammals involve local biochemical changes as a result of substantial modifications in cellular metabolism, the most well known of which is steroid variation. In the present study, the intrafollicular variation of several other components was studied using proton nuclear magnetic resonance ((1)H NMR). This approach made it possible to demonstrate that the intrafollicular biochemical content changes during follicular growth and maturation. Follicular fluid was aspirated by ovarian puncture of the dominant follicle at various physiological stages ...
Effect of general anesthesia and minor surgical trauma on urine and serum measurements in horses. To characterize the effect of general anesthesia and minor surgery on renal function in horses. Methods: 9 mares with a mean (+/- SE) age and body weight of 9+/-2 years and 492+/-17 kg, respectively. Methods: The day before anesthesia, urine was collected (catheterization) for 3 hours to quantitate baseline values, and serum biochemical analysis was performed. The following day, xylazine (1.1 mg/kg, IV) was administered, and general anesthesia was induced 5 minutes later with diazepam (0.04 mg/kg, IV) and ketamine (2.2 mg/kg, IV). During 2 hours of anesthesia with isoflurane, Paco2 was maintai...
Effect of withholding feed on concentration and composition of plasma very low density lipoprotein and serum nonesterified fatty acids in horses. To measure and compare the concentration and composition of very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) in plasma and selected lipids in serum of horses fed mixed grass hay ad libitum or denied feed for 36 hours. Methods: 4 healthy adult mares. Methods: Mares were either fed mixed grass hay ad libitum or denied feed for 36 hours beginning at 8:00 AM. Blood samples were collected every 2 hours during the study period and analyzed for nonesterified fatty acid (NEFA), triglyceride (TG), VLDL, and glucose concentrations and composition of VLDL. Results: Withholding feed significantly increased mean serum ...
Molecular characterisation of carbohydrate digestion and absorption in equine small intestine. Dietary carbohydrates, when digested and absorbed in the small intestine of the horse, provide a substantial fraction of metabolisable energy. However, if levels in diets exceed the capacity of the equine small intestine to digest and absorb them, they reach the hindgut, cause alterations in microbial populations and the metabolite products and predispose the horse to gastrointestinal diseases. We set out to determine, at the molecular level, the mechanisms, properties and the site of expression of carbohydrate digestive and absorptive functions of the equine small intestinal brush-border memb...
Parenteral nutrition for horses with gastrointestinal disease: a retrospective study of 79 cases. Parenteral nutrition is advocated for sick foals and horses, although there is no report which has critically evaluated its benefits in this species. Therefore, the hypothesis that parenteral nutrition (PN) is beneficial for horses with severe gastrointestinal disease was investigated in a retrospective study. Records from 79 treatment courses in horses with gastrointestinal disease were reviewed for the years 1992-2000. The fatality rate (48.1%) was attributed to the severity of the primary disease. Complications due to PN were recorded and hyperglycaemia was the most common complication asso...
Dietary soyabean oil depresses the apparent digestibility of fibre in trotters when substituted for an iso-energetic amount of corn starch or glucose. The aim of the present study was to establish whether the inhibitory effect of fat feeding on fibre digestion has been underestimated due to the substitution of fat for corn starch. A high fat intake has been shown to lower total intestinal tract apparent digestibility of crude fibre in horses but, since fat was substituted for nonstructural carbohydrates, including starch, the specific effect of fat could not be ascertained. The possibility could not be excluded that starch also inhibits fibre digestibility, so that the fat effect observed earlier would have been underestimated. In this study...
Cytosolic ratio of malate dehyrogenase/lactate dehydrogenase activity in peripheral leukocytes of race horses with training. The activities of the enzymes involved in the malate-aspartate shuttle and m RNA expression of malate dehydrogenase (MDH), a crucial enzyme for the NADH shuttle that produces ATP in glucose metabolism in the peripheral leukocytes of horses, were measured to investigate the change in metabolic states with training. There were no significant differences in plasma glucose and immunoreactive insulin concentrations between race horses and riding horses, used as a comparable reference. The cytosolic and mitochondrial MDH activities in leukocytes of race horses were significantly higher than those of...
Effect of 2-deoxy-D-glucose on gonadotropins, prolactin and serum glucose concentrations in the mare. In a variety of species, glucoprivation results in the suppression of the reproductive axis. Two experiments were performed to test the hypothesis that blockade of glucose metabolism via administration of the glucose inhibitor 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2DG) to mares would cause a modification in gonadotropin and prolactin secretion. Long-term ovariectomized mares (Experiment 1, n=4) or ovary-intact mares during the follicular phase of a synchronized estrous cycle (Experiment 2, n=4 per dose) were treated with 2DG. The dose of 2DG used in Experiment 1 was 100mg 2DG/kg BW, but because severe behavioral...
Effects of frequency of treatment with recombinant equine somatotropin on selected biological responses in geldings. Two experiments compared the efficacies of different treatment frequencies for recombinant equine somatotropin (eST). In Experiment 1, five geldings received daily injections of eST at 20 microg/kg of body weight, and five received every-other-day injections at 40 microg/kg of body weight, for a total of 30 days. Plasma glucose (P=0.0001), insulin (P=0.0135), and non-esterified fatty acid (NEFA, P=0.0001) concentrations increased, and plasma urea nitrogen (PUN) concentrations decreased (P=0.0001), in both groups, and only minor differences (P<0.05) occurred between the two groups. Insulin-like...
The apparent digestibility of fibre in trotters when dietary soybean oil is substituted for an iso-energetic amount of glucose. An attempt was made to quantify the effect of extra fat intake on fibre utilization in horses. In a 4 x 4 cross-over trial with feeding periods of 24 days each, eight mature trotting horses (age 4 to 12 years, 407 to 531 kg BW) were given four diets. The concentrates were formulated to contain either soybean oil or an iso-energetic amount of glucose or combinations of the two ingredients. The concentrates were fed in combination with the same amount of hay so that the whole diets contained 30, 50, 77 or 108 g EE/kg DM. Apart from the amounts of fat and glucose the four diets were identical. Wi...
Effect of dietary medium chain triacylglycerols on plasma triacylglycerol levels in horses. The hypothesis tested was that the feeding of medium chain triacylglycerols (MCT) to horses would raise the level of plasma triacylglycerols by increasing the availability of glucose as lipogenic substrate, implying that the MCT effect would be greater with glucose in the diet instead of cellulose. A Latin square experiment was carried out with 4 horses and 4 dietary treatments. The experimental periods lasted 21 d. Blood samples were taken 16 h after feeding. The diets consisted of hay and experimental concentrates, differing in fat source (MCT or soybean oil) and carbohydrate source (corn st...
Glycemic index of a meal fed before exercise alters substrate use and glucose flux in exercising horses. In a randomized, balanced, crossover study each of six fit, adult horses ran on a treadmill at 50% of maximal rate of oxygen consumption for 60 min after being denied access to food for 18 h and then 1) fed corn (51.4 kJ/kg digestible energy), or 2) fed an isocaloric amount of alfalfa 2-3 h before exercise, or 3) not fed before exercise. Feeding corn, compared with fasting, resulted in higher plasma glucose and serum insulin and lower serum nonesterified fatty acid concentrations before exercise (P < 0.05) and in lower plasma glucose, serum glycerol, and serum nonesterified fatty acid conce...
Effect of partial replacement of oats with sugar beet pulp and maize oil on nutrient utilisation in horses. The objective of the present work was to assess the influence of partial replacement of oats with dried unmolassed sugar beet pulp (SBP) and/or maize oil on nutrient utilisation in horses fed a traditional hay and concentrate diet. The total tract digestibility of nutrients, urinary excretion and plasma parameters were studied in a 4 x 4 Latin-square design experiment with purebred Arabian geldings. Horses fed the SBP diets responded with a reduced (P<0.05) apparent digestibility of crude protein and feeding of maize oil resulted in an increased (P<0.05) apparent digestibility of crude f...
Fat feeding increases equine heparin-released lipoprotein lipase activity. The aim of this study was to establish the dose-response relationship between fat intake and heparin-released plasma lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity in horses. Eight mature trotters were fed 4 rations with different fat levels (3.0, 5.0, 7.7, or 10.8% fat in the dry matter) according to a 4 X 4 Latin square design. The experimental rations consisted of hay and different concentrates; the concentrates and hay were given in a 3:1 ratio on an energy basis. Soybean oil was added to the concentrates at the expense of isoenergetic amounts of glucose. Blood samples were taken at the end of each die...
Muscle glycogen depletion and subsequent replenishment affect anaerobic capacity of horses. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of muscle glycogen depletion and subsequent replenishment on anaerobic capacity of horses. In a blinded crossover study, seven fit horses performed glycogen-depleting exercise on two occasions. Horses were infused after glycogen-depleting exercise with either 6 g/kg body wt of glucose as a 13.5% solution in 0.9% NaCl (Glu) or with 0.9% NaCl (Sal) of equivalent volume. Subsequently, horses performed a high-speed exercise test (120% of maximal rate of oxygen consumption) to estimate maximum accumulated oxygen deficit. Replenishment of muscle ...
Effects of nandrolone treatment on recovery in horses after strenuous physical exercise. To test the effect of nandrolone on their recovery, six adult half-bred riding horses performed a competition exercise test (CET) and a standardized exercise test (SET) on consecutive days before and after a 2-week treatment with the anabolic steroid nandrolone laurate. Blood samples were collected during and between these tests for the determination of red cell volume and concentrations of blood lactate, plasma glucose, non-esterified fatty acids, glycerol, triglycrides, erythropoietin, cortisol, insulin, and glucagon. Muscle biopsy specimens were taken immediately after the CET and before th...
Plasma glucose and insulin responses of Thoroughbred mares fed a meal high in starch and sugar or fat and fiber. Plasma concentrations of glucose and insulin following a meal were compared in twelve Thoroughbred mares fed a pelleted concentrate (PC), a traditional sweet feed high in sugar and starch (SS), or a feed high in fat and fiber (FF). The feeds had similar DE and CP but differed in fat (19, 32, and 166 g/kg DM, respectively), NDF (199, 185, and 369 g/kg DM, respectively) and nonstructural carbohydrates (574, 645, and 247 g/kg, respectively). Mares were randomly assigned to two groups balanced for foaling date and weight. All mares received PC in late gestation; then, after foaling, one group was ...
Glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and the enteroinsular axis in equines (Equus caballus). To investigate the enteroinsular axis (EIA) in equines oral (oGTT) and intravenous (i.v.GTT) glucose tolerance tests (5.6 and 1 mmol glucose/kg BW, respectively) were performed with healthy, normal weight large horses and Shetland ponies. Plasma was analysed for concentrations of glucose, glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) and insulin. In all equines plasma GIP concentrations only increased significantly when glucose was administered orally. The insulin glucose ratio (IGR) was significantly higher during the oGTT than during the i.v.GTT in both races. Basal plasma glucose level...
[Equine motor neuron disease: a review based on a case report]. A 10-year-old, non-pregnant Dutch Warmblood mare was referred to the Department of Equine Science because of chronic weight loss, despite good appetite, and dullness. Clinical examination revealed muscle atrophy, trembling of the limb muscles, an abnormal stance in which all four limbs were placed under the body, and an abnormal low head carriage. The plasma vitamin E concentration was markedly decreased (0.2 mumol/l), the electromyographic (EMG) examination was consistent with denervation, and the oral glucose absorption test was below the reference value (40% increase over the resting glucos...
Postprandial arterial vasodilation in the equine distal thoracic limb. The effects of feeding on blood flow to the equine foot are poorly understood. In a temperature-controlled room, duplex Doppler ultrasonographic observations were made pre- and postprandially of the lateral proper palmar digital artery of 5 horses, randomly assigned to twice and 4 times daily feeding in an unbalanced 2 period crossover design. Arterial diameter and blood velocity were measured over 4 h and additional observations made of heart rate, blood pressure, total plasma protein, packed cell volume, plasma glucose and insulin. There was no effect of the feeding regimen on any variable. ...
Assessment of metabolism of equine morulae and blastocysts. Nutrient uptakes and metabolite production by equine morula and blastocyst stage embryos were determined by non-invasive microfluorometry. Equine morula took up equal amounts of both pyruvate and glucose. However, at the early blastocyst there was a small increase in glucose uptake and, by the expanded blastocyst stage, glucose was the predominant nutrient. Expanded blastocysts took up five times more glucose than pyruvate. Expanded blastocysts exhibited an exponential increase in glucose uptake and lactate production with respect to both diameter and surface area. As less than 50% of the gluc...
Intermittent hypoglycemia in a horse with anaplastic carcinoma of the kidney. Clinically apparent hypoglycemia is rare in adult horses. Hypoglycemia is a well-recognized paraneoplastic syndrome in humans and dogs with non-insulin-secreting tumors and may occur in horses as well. Hypoglycemia associated with non-insulin-secreting tumors is believed to result from production of an abnormal form of insulin-like growth factor II. Neoplasia should be considered in the differential diagnosis for adult horses with hypoglycemia.
