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Topic:Kinematics
Kinematics in horses refers to the study of motion without considering the forces that cause it. This field involves analyzing the movement patterns of horses, including gait, stride length, joint angles, and limb trajectories. Kinematic analysis is performed using technologies such as high-speed cameras and motion capture systems to collect data on equine locomotion. This information is valuable for understanding normal and abnormal movement, assessing performance, and identifying potential lameness or injury. The study of kinematics provides insights into the biomechanics of horse movement and contributes to advancements in training, rehabilitation, and veterinary care. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the methodologies, findings, and applications of kinematic analysis in equine science.
Effect of early training on the jumping technique of horses. To investigate the effects of early training for jumping by comparing the jumping technique of horses that had received early training with that of horses raised conventionally. Methods: 40 Dutch Warmblood horses. Methods: The horses were analyzed kinematically during free jumping at 6 months of age. Subsequently, they were allocated into a control group that was raised conventionally and an experimental group that received 30 months of early training starting at 6 months of age. At 4 years of age, after a period of rest in pasture and a short period of training with a rider, both groups were ...
In vivo muscle function vs speed. I. Muscle strain in relation to length change of the muscle-tendon unit. The activity of muscles can be concentric (shortening), eccentric (lengthening) or isometric (constant length). When studying muscle function it is important to know what the muscle fascicles are actually doing because the performance of muscle is strongly influenced by the type of activity: force decreases as a function of shortening velocity during concentric contractions; force produced during eccentric contractions can be stronger than maximum isometric force, and force production is enhanced if a concentric contraction follows an eccentric phase. It is well known that length changes of mu...
Effects of girth, saddle and weight on movements of the horse. Although the saddle is seen as one of the biggest causes of back pain, and weightbearing is seen as an important aetiological factor in 'kissing spine' syndrome (KSS), the effects of a saddle and weight on the back movements of the horse have never been studied. Objective: To determine the effects of pressure on the back, exerted by tack and weight, on movements of the horse. Objective: Weight has an extending effect on the horse's back and, as a compensatory mechanism to this extension, an alteration in pro- and retraction angles was expected. A similar but smaller effect was expected from a ...
In vitro assessment of movements of the sacroiliac joint in the horse. Sacroiliac joint (SIJ) disease is associated with poor hindlimb action, lameness and poor performance in horses. However, little is known about the biomechanics of this low-motion joint. Objective: To determine in vitro the capacities of movement of the SIJ in the sagittal plane, and to test the effect of a sacrosciatic and sacrotuberal desmotomy on its stabilisation. Methods: Six anatomical specimens underwent cycles of flexion-extension of the lumbosacral joint (LSJ) before and after desmotomy. Kinematic triads were linked rigidly to the sacrum, spinous process of vertebra L5 and iliac wing....
Influence of rider on lameness in trotting horses. Equine lameness is commonly evaluated when the horse is being ridden, but the influence of the rider on the lameness has not been documented. Objective: To document the effect of 2 riders of different training levels on the vertical movement of the head and croup. Methods: Twenty mature horses were ridden at trot by an experienced dressage rider and a novice rider, as well as trotted in hand. Kinematic measurements of markers placed on the horse's head and sacral bone were carried out. The asymmetries of the vertical head and sacral bone motion were calculated as lameness parameters and compar...
Verification of skin-based markers for 3-dimensional kinematic analysis of the equine tarsal joint. Kinematic studies are usually based on tracking markers attached to the skin. However, complex joints, such as the tarsal joint, function in 3-dimensions (3D), and have therefore necessitated application of the invasive bone pin technique, limiting kinematic studies to the research laboratory. This study investigates the feasibility of using skin-based markers for 3D analysis of tarsal joint motion. Objective: Three-dimensional motions of the tarsal joint can be measured with an acceptable degree of accuracy using skin markers. Methods: Retroreflective markers were attached over the tibial and...
Energetic and kinematic consequences of weighting the distal limb. It is well known that adding a load to a horse's back increases its energetic costs of locomotion, but the magnitude of increase obtained by loading the most distal portion of limb has not been measured. Objective: To measure oxygen consumption in horses with mass added to the back and hooves. Because such mass distribution alters inertial parameters of the limbs, kinematic measurements were made to quantify the magnitude of change in limb movement. Methods: Steady-state oxygen consumption was measured in 6 horses with a load of 2.4 kg. The load was either carried on the back or distributed eq...
Influence of individual competition level on back kinematics of horses jumping a vertical fence. The costs and investments required for the purchase and training of showjumpers justify the need to find selection means for jumping horses. Use of objective kinematic criteria correlated to jumping ability could be helpful for this assessment. Objective: To compare back kinematics between 2 groups of horses of different competition levels (Group 1, competing at high level; Group 2 competing at low level) while free jumping over a 1 m vertical fence. Methods: Three-dimensional recordings were performed using 2 panning cameras. Kinematic parameters of the withers and tuber sacrale (vertical dis...
Influence of support boots on fetlock joint angle of the forelimb of the horse at walk and trot. Support boots are thought to reduce tension on the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDTF) of the horse and are frequently recommended for horses convalescing after tendonitis, but evidence of their effectiveness is conflicting. Objective: To document the effects of 4 different types of support boots on fetlock joint angle in comparison to the unprotected fetlock. Methods: In 26 horses, the kinematics of the forelimb fetlock joint angle was measured at walk and trot on a treadmill when wearing 3 different types of support boots and 1 protective boot, as well as without boots. As outcome param...
Effects of 6 degree elevation of the heels on 3D kinematics of the distal portion of the forelimb in the walking horse. Understanding of the biomechanical effects of heel elevation remains incomplete because in vivo studies performed with skin markers do not measure the actual movements of the 3 digital joints. Objective: To quantify the effects of 6 degree heel wedge on the 3-dimensional movements of the 4 distal segments of the forelimb in the walking horse. Methods: Four healthy horses were used. Kinematics of the distal segments was measured invasively with a system based on ultrasonic triangulation. Three-dimensional rotations of the digital joints were calculated by use of a 'joint coordinate system' (JCS...
Evaluation of pressure distribution under an English saddle at walk, trot and canter. Basic information about the influence of a rider on the equine back is currently lacking. Objective: That pressure distribution under a saddle is different between the walk, trot and canter. Methods: Twelve horses without clinical signs of back pain were ridden. At least 6 motion cycles at walk, trot and canter were measured kinematically. Using a saddle pad, the pressure distribution was recorded. The maximum overall force (MOF) and centre of pressure (COP) were calculated. The range of back movement was determined from a marker placed on the withers. Results: MOF and COP showed a consistent ...
Ground reaction forces and limb function in tölting Icelandic horses. Gaited horses employ 4-beat stepping (singlefoot) gaits that extend into speeds typical of trots. Ground reaction force (GRF) patterns of these specialised gaits have not been reported; therefore, appraisal of these gaits using nongaited horse kinetics may lead to clinical misjudgements. Objective: GRFs of tölting Icelandic horses will be comparable in profile and magnitude with those of trotting horses. Methods: Forelimb and hindlimb GRFs were obtained for 10 Icelandic horses ridden at a tölt. These data were evaluated across 3 speed ranges: 5 m/sec. Results: Virtually all vertical force tr...
Three-dimensional kinematic analysis of horses with induced tarsal synovitis. Techniques for 3D analysis have recently been developed. This study applied 3D kinematic analysis to describe the effects of lameness in the distal intertarsal (DIT) and tarsometatarsal (TMT) joints; complex joints such as this may show measurable amounts of movement outside the sagittal plane that may change in response to pathological conditions. Objective: Three-dimensional motions of the tarsal joint change after the induction of synovitis at the DIT and TMT joints. Methods: Twelve retroreflective markers, attached on the skin over the right limb, were used to develop 3D coordinate systems...
Development of a 3D model of the equine distal forelimb and of a GRF shoe for noninvasive determination of in vivo tendon and ligament loads and strains. As critical locomotion events (e.g. high-speed and impacts during racing, jump landing) may contribute to tendinopathies, in vivo recording of gaits kinematic and dynamic parameters is essential for 3D reconstruction and analysis. Objective: To propose a 3D model of the forelimb and a ground reaction force recording shoe (GRF-S) for noninvasively quantifying tendon and ligament loads and strains. Methods: Bony segments trajectories of forelimbs placed under a power press were recorded using triads of ultrasonic kinematic markers linked to the bones. Compression cycles (from 500-6000 N) were ap...
Three-dimensional analysis of patterns of skin displacement over the equine radius. Surface markers are usually used to track bone movement. However, skin movement related to the bone has a large effect on the analysis of skeletal kinematics. A 2-dimensional (2D) skin displacement correction model has been successfully developed, but no 3D skin displacement model exists. Objective: To develop a 3-dimensional (3D) skin displacement model for the equine radial segment during trot. Methods: The 3D trajectories of 6 skin-based markers and a bone-fixed triad were captured at trot in 4 horses. Skin displacements in the bone-based coordinate system were calculated using a singular-v...
Effects of athletic taping of the fetlock on distal limb mechanics. Athletic taping is used frequently by human athletes to stabilise, maintain or strengthen soft tissue structures, but empirical evidence supporting any changes in equine kinematics is lacking. Objective: To assess the effects of athletic taping of the fetlock applied by an experienced athletic trainer on forelimb mechanics in healthy horses. Objective: That athletic taping of the distal forelimb reduces 1) hyperextension of the fetlock joint during stance, 2) flexion of the fetlock joint during swing and 3) ground reaction forces during stance. Methods: Ground reaction force and kinematic data...
Relationships between fore- and hindlimb ground reaction force and hoof deceleration patterns in trotting horses. The transmission of shockwaves following hoof impact is proposed to be one major source of stress to the limb. In the forelimb, there are indications that the period of horizontal deceleration of the hoof is related to the attenuation of shockwaves. In the hindlimb, information about the hoof deceleration has been lacking. Objective: To compare hoof deceleration patterns between the fore- and hindlimbs. Methods: Seven Standardbreds were trotted by hand over a force plate covered with sand, with triaxial accelerometers mounted on the fore and hind hooves. Variables representative of deceleratio...
Three-dimensional carpal kinematics of trotting horses. Descriptions of 3D kinematics assist in understanding joint function and dysfunction, and are an essential step toward 3D inverse dynamic analysis. Objective: To measure 3D carpal joint motion during trotting. Methods: Three-dimensional trajectories of bone-fixed markers on the radius and third metacarpus of the right forelimb of 3 healthy horses were recorded at 120 Hz using a 6-camera analysis system. Joint kinematics were calculated in terms of helical angles between the 2 segments using a spatial attitude method. Results: All horses showed carpal extension and internal rotation of the meta...
Influence of the load of a rider or of a region with increased stiffness on the equine back: a modelling study. Knowledge of load effects is crucial for the understanding of the aetiology and pathogenesis of equine back problems. Objective: To investigate different load scenarios of the equine back, such as being ridden or increased muscle tone, using biomechanical simulations. Methods: Kinetic and kinematic data of 15 sound horses and the electromyelograph of their long back muscles were recorded. A biomechanical simulation model was used for simulations under different biomechanical scenarios (ridden/unridden, localised increased stiffness) using ADAMS. Results: The vertical forces acting through a ri...
Detection of spinal ataxia in horses using fuzzy clustering of body position uncertainty. Subjective neurological evaluation in horses is prone to bias. An objective method of spinal ataxia detection is not subject to these limitations and could be of use in equine practice and research. Objective: Kinematic data in the walking horse can differentiate normal and spinal ataxic horses. Methods: Twelve normal and 12 spinal ataxic horses were evaluated by kinematic analysis walking on a treadmill. Each body position signal was reduced to a scalar measure of uncertainty then fuzzy clustered into normal or ataxic groups. Correct classification percentage (CCP) was then calculated using m...
Kinematic evaluation of the back in the sport horse with back pain. Earlier studies have developed a clinical tool to evaluate objectively the function of the equine back. The ability to differentiate horses with back pain from asymptomatic, fully functioning horses using kinematic measures from this tool has not been evaluated. Objective: To compare the kinematics of the back at walk and trot in riding horses with back dysfunction to the same parameters in asymptomatic sport horses. Methods: The kinematics of the back in 12 horses with impaired performance and back pain were studied at walk and trot on a treadmill. Data were captured for 10 sees at 240 Hz. Ra...
The influence of head and neck position on kinematics of the back in riding horses at the walk and trot. A common opinion among riders and in the literature is that the positioning of the head and neck influences the back of the horse, but this has not yet been measured objectively. Objective: To evaluate the effect of head and neck position on the kinematics of the back in riding horses. Methods: Eight Warmblood riding horses in regular work were studied on a treadmill at walk and trot with the head and neck in 3 different predetermined positions achieved by side reins attached to the bit and to an anticast roller. The 3-dimensional movement of the thoracolumbar spine was measured from the posit...
Three-dimensional kinematics of the equine distal forelimb: effects of a sharp turn at the walk. Sharp turns are suspected to increase expression of several distal forelimb lamenesses even at the walk but the biomechanical consequences of such a movement remain unknown. Objective: To quantify the effects of a sharp turn at the walk on the 3-dimensional movements of the distal segments of the forelimb. Methods: Kinematics of the distal segments were measured in 4 healthy horses invasively with an ultrasonic system. Three-dimensional rotations of the digital joints were calculated by use of a joint coordinate system. Data obtained for a turn at the walk were compared to those obtained in a ...
Contribution of the forelimbs and hindlimbs of the horse to mechanical energy changes in jumping. The purpose of the present study was to gain more insight into the contribution of the forelimbs and hindlimbs of the horse to energy changes during the push-off for a jump. For this purpose, we collected kinematic data at 240 Hz from 23 5-year-old Warmbloods (average mass: 595 kg) performing free jumps over a 1.15 m high fence. From these data, we calculated the changes in mechanical energy and the changes in limb length and joint angles. The force carried by the forelimbs and the amount of energy stored was estimated from the distance between elbow and hoof, assuming that this part of the le...
Influence of the rider on the variability of the equine gait. The aim of this study was to show that the motion pattern of a well-ridden horse varies less than the motion pattern of an unridden horse. In order to do so, we recorded the motion of two markers, one attached to the dorsal spinous processus of lumbar vertebra L4, the other to the right fore hoof. In total, we measured 21 horses in trot, ridden and unridden, with a fitting and with a non-fitting saddle. After breaking down the entire time series of the three-dimensional motion of the markers into their respective motion cycles, we computed a measure of motion pattern variability for the motion...
Kinematic evaluation of the back in fully functioning riding horses. Clinical history and examination are important features in diagnosis of equine back dysfunction. However, interpretation is subjective and therefore may vary substantially. Objective: To establish a clinical tool to objectively evaluate the function of the equine back, in the form of a database on the kinematics of the back at the walk and trot in fully functioning riding horses. Methods: Thirty-three fully functioning riding horses walked and trotted on a treadmill. Morphometrics and kinematics were tested for correlations to age, height, weight and stride length, and differences between gend...
Determination of peak vertical ground reaction force from duty factor in the horse (Equus caballus). Measurement of peak vertical ground reaction force (GRFz) from multiple limbs simultaneously during high-speed, over-ground locomotion would enhance our understanding of the locomotor mechanics of cursorial animals. Here, we evaluate the accuracy of predicting peak GRFz from duty factor (the proportion of the stride for which the limb is in contact with the ground). Foot-mounted uniaxial accelerometers, combined with UHF FM telemetry, are shown to be practical and accurate for the field measurement of stride timing variables, including duty factor. Direct comparison with the force plate produc...
Ground reaction forces in horses trotting up an incline and on the level over a range of speeds. Although the forces required to support the body mass are not elevated when moving up an incline, kinematic studies, in vivo tendon and bone studies and kinetic studies suggest there is a shift in forces from the fore- to the hindlimbs in quadrupeds. However, there are no whole-animal kinetic measurements of incline locomotion. Based on previous related research, we hypothesized that there would be a shift in forces to the hindlimb. The present study measured the force produced by the fore- and hindlimbs of horses while trotting over a range of speeds (2.5 to 5 m s(-1)) on both level and up an...
