Ligaments in horses are fibrous connective tissues that connect bones to other bones, providing stability and support to the skeletal structure. These structures are integral to maintaining joint function and facilitating movement. In equine anatomy, ligaments are involved in various functions, including supporting the limbs and allowing for efficient locomotion. Common ligaments in horses include the suspensory ligament, which plays a significant role in supporting the fetlock joint, and the nuchal ligament, which supports the head and neck. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, function, injury mechanisms, and rehabilitation of ligaments in horses.
Kuemmerle JM, Berchtold S.This study compared the areas of cartilage accessible for curettage in arthrodesis of the equine proximal interphalangeal joint using the conventional and collateral ligament sparing approaches. For this purpose, forelimbs and hindlimbs of six equine cadavers without radiographic evidence of proximal interphalangeal joint disease were used. One limb of each pair of limbs was randomly assigned to a dissection using a standard approach to the proximal interphalangeal joint including transection of the collateral ligaments, while each contralateral limb was exposed using the same approach but lea...
Seo JP, Tanabe T, Tsuzuki N, Haneda S, Yamada K, Furuoka H, Tabata Y, Sasaki N.Osteochondrosis (OC) is a common and clinically important joint disorder in horses. However, repair of the OC region is difficult because of the avascular nature of cartilage. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of bilayer gelatin/β-tricalcium phosphate (GT) sponges loaded with mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), chondrocytes, bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2), and platelet rich plasma (PRP) for the repair of osteochondral defects of the talus in horses. Full-thickness osteochondral defects were created on both the lateral trochlear ridges of the talus (n = 6). In the test group, a basic ...
Bowser JE, Elder SH, Pasquali M, Grady JG, Rashmir-Raven AM, Wills R, Swiderski CE.Hereditary equine regional dermal asthenia (HERDA) is an autosomal recessive disorder of Quarter Horses characterised by skin fragility. Horses with HERDA have a missense mutation in peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase B (PPIB), which encodes cyclophilin B and alters folding and post translational modifications of fibrillar collagen. Objective: The study aimed to test the hypothesis that tendons, ligaments and great vessels, which, like skin, are rich in fibrillar collagen, will also have abnormal biomechanical properties in horses with HERDA. Methods: Ex vivo biomechanical study comparing...
Calvert N, Grainger N, Hurworth M.Currently, there is a lack of cheap and effective training models to allow orthopaedic surgery trainees to learn the basics of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. The aim of this paper was to investigate the viability of using various animal joints as models for the training of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. Methods: Equine stifles, bovine stifles and carpal joints, sheep stifles and porcine stifles, were sourced from a local abattoir. Each joint was assessed for the following criteria: suitable tendons for harvesting, ease of arthroscopy access, adequacy of arthroscopy view...
Welsh CE, Lewis TW, Blott SC, Mellor DJ, Lam KH, Stewart BD, Parkin TD.A retrospective cohort study of important musculoskeletal conditions of Thoroughbred racehorses was conducted using health records generated over a 15 year period (n=5062, 1296 sires). The prevalence of each condition in the study population was: fracture, 13%; osteoarthritis, 10%; suspensory ligament injury, 10%; and tendon injury, 19%. Linear and logistic sire and animal regression models were built to describe the binary occurrence of these musculoskeletal conditions, and to evaluate the significance of possible environmental risk factors. The heritability of each condition was estimated us...
Werpy NM, Denoix JM, McIlwraith CW, Frisbie DD.Previous studies have proposed that standard ultrasonography may not adequately represent the pertinent anatomic characteristics of the equine proximal suspensory ligament. The purpose of the study was to compare the use of standard ultrasonography, angle contrast ultrasonography, MRI, and histology for identification of the anatomic characteristics of the normal equine suspensory ligament in the forelimb. Horses free from forelimb lameness with no palpable abnormalities in the region of the suspensory ligament were included in the study. The proximal suspensory ligaments in 20 forelimbs were ...
Lange-Consiglio A, Tassan S, Corradetti B, Meucci A, Perego R, Bizzaro D, Cremonesi F.This is the first study to compare the treatment of horse tendon and ligament injuries with the use of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) obtained from two different sources: amniotic membrane (AMSCs) and bone marrow (BM-MSCs). The objective was to prove the ability of AMSCs to exert beneficial effects in vivo. Methods: Five million allogeneic frozen-thawed AMSCs or autologous fresh BM-MSCs were injected intralesionally in horses belonging to group A (51 horses) and group B (44 horses). The interval lesion/implantation was of 6-15 days for the AMSCs and 16-35 days for the BM-MSCs. Healing was as...
Dabareiner RM, Chaffin MK, Quirham H, Carter GK.4 horses with enthesopathy and desmitis of the medial collateral ligament of the cubital joint were examined. Results: All 4 horses had a history of acute, severe, unilateral forelimb lameness and had signs of pain during manipulation of the affected upper forelimb; 2 also had swelling in the axillary region. There was no improvement in lameness after diagnostic local analgesia below the carpal region, and 1 of 4 horses had mild improvement after cubital joint analgesia. Radiography revealed enthesophyte formation on the radial tuberosity and linear mineralization of the medial collateral liga...
Lempe-Troillet A, Ludewig E, Brehm W, Budras KD, Winter K, Edinger J.The object of this study was to describe previously defined soft tissue structures by using spin and gradient sequences in a 0.5 Tesla magnetic resonance system in order to improve the characterisation of tendon and ligaments at the plantar region of the equine tarsus and metatarsus while considering possible age-related variations. Methods: Cadaveric hindlimbs from twenty-two Warmblood horses with an age range from one month to twenty-five years were examined in spin and gradient echoes. The proximal suspensory ligament from six limbs was dissected to assign the signal intensities histologica...
Becerra P, Valdés Vázquez MA, Dudhia J, Fiske-Jackson AR, Neves F, Hartman NG, Smith RK.This study aimed to investigate immediate cell survival and distribution following different administration routes of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) into naturally occurring tendon injuries. Ten million MSCs, labeled with technetium-99m hexamethylpropyleneamine oxime, were implanted into 13 horses with naturally occurring tendon or ligament injuries intra-lesionally, intravenously and by regional perfusion, and traced for up to 48 h using planar gamma scintigraphy. Labeling efficiencies varied between 1.8% and 18.5% (mean 9.3%). Cells were retained in the damaged area after intra-lesional adm...
Gray SN, Puchalski SM, Galuppo LD.Injuries of the intercarpal ligaments are an important cause of lameness in performance horses. The purpose of this prospective cadaver study was to determine whether computed tomography (CT) arthrography would be a feasible method for visualizing and characterizing intercarpal ligaments in the horse. One cadaver limb from each of eight nonlame horses was collected immediately after euthanasia. For each limb, overlapping 2.0 mm CT images were acquired before and after injection of iodinated contrast medium into the antebrachiocarpal joint, middle carpal joint, and carpal sheath. Spin echo magn...
Shikh Alsook MK, Antoine N, Piret J, Moula N, Busoni V, Denoix JM, Gabriel A.The third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament, TIOM) is composed of connective tissue (CT) with a variable proportion of muscle (MT) and adipose tissue (AT). The aim of our study is to quantify the CT, MT and AT within the body and the branches of right thoracic and pelvic limbs TIOM in sound horses to determine whether there are differences in CT, MT and AT between age, sex, limbs and levels. Right limbs from 11 sound horses were collected. Samples from 6 levels of the TIOM were embedded in paraffin or in Tissue-Tek(®) . Most of the paraffin sections were shredded. Using the cryosection...
Kümmerle JM, Kummer MR.To describe the arthroscopically accessible anatomy of the tarsal collateral ligaments in the horse. Methods: Descriptive study. Methods: Cadaveric equine hind limbs (n = 24) obtained from horses without tarsal disease. Methods: Two pairs of tarsal joints were used to obtain silicone models of the tarsocrural joint and dissect the tarsal collateral ligaments (CLs). Ten pairs of tarsocrural joints had arthroscopic exploration and the accessible parts of the tarsal CLs were marked with an arthroscopic hook knife. Subsequently, the limbs were dissected and the marked positions were allocated to t...
Hall MS, Vasey JR, Russell JW, Russell T.To evaluate the racing performance of horses that underwent ultrasound-guided intralesional injection of autologous bone marrow aspirate for treatment of selected forelimb suspensory ligament (body or branch) core lesions. Methods: Retrospective cohort study of 13 Standardbred and 17 Thoroughbred race horses. Methods: Autologous bone marrow aspirated from the sternebrae was injected, under ultrasound guidance, into suspensory ligament core lesions (body or branch). Racing records were reviewed for a comparison of performance before and after surgery. Results: Of the 13 Standardbreds, 9 (69%) h...
Rijkenhuizen AB, Sommerauer S, Fasching M, Velde K, Peham C.There are no studies on the ideal ligature technique for the spermatic cord. Objective: To compare the maximal resistance pressure in the testicular artery and the maximal tensile forces to produce failure of 2 different ligature techniques used for ligation of the equine spermatic cord. Methods: The capabilities of 2 types of ligatures, single knot loop and double knot loop, were assessed using a pressure-resistance test in testicular arteries and with an in vitro mechanical evaluation of the tensile strength by single cycle-to-failure testing. Results: In the pressure-resistance test, the me...
Guasco PG, Kelly G, Schumacher J, Henry RW.To assess outcome after neurectomy of the deep branch of the lateral palmar nerve (DBLPaN) as a treatment for horses with persistent lameness associated with chronic proximal suspensory desmitis (PSD) of the thoracic limb. Methods: Case series. Methods: Adult, mixed-breed horses (n = 4), weighing 510-585 kg, used for amateur show-jumping. Methods: Records of 4 horses chronically lame because of PSD of one or both thoracic limbs that were treated by neurectomy of the DBLPaN were reviewed. The site of pain causing lameness was localized using regional anesthesia. The proximal aspect of the suspe...
Werpy NM, Denoix JM.Injury to the suspensory ligament can result in significant lameness. Multiple imaging modalities may be required to fully characterize injury to the suspensory ligament. Ultrasonography of the suspensory ligament is challenging, due to the normal anatomy. This article describes imaging of the proximal suspensory ligament in the front and hind limbs of the horse.
Biggi M, Dyson S.The distribution of lesions detected using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of hind feet has not been reported. Objective: To evaluate type and distribution of lesions detected using MRI in hind feet of lame horses and to compare the findings with those reported in front feet; to document follow-up information. Methods: Horses were selected if hindlimb lameness was abolished by plantar nerve blocks performed at the base of the proximal sesamoid bones. Magnetic resonance images were acquired using either a low-field or a high-field magnet, and all images were evaluated retrospectively by both a...
Lamb L, Zubrod C, Hague B, Brakenhoff J, Major M.The significance of collateral ligament desmitis of the tarsocrural joint is often clinically underestimated, because it is an uncommon injury with a guarded prognosis for athletic soundness. The objective of this study was to describe the clinical presentation, treatment, and outcome of 12 horses with collateral ligament desmitis, along with tarsocrural joint synovitis secondary to hemarthrosis. Criteria for inclusion in this study included clinical signs of tarsocrural joint synovitis and sonographic evidence of collateral ligament desmitis. This retrospective study evaluated horses over an ...
Gaschen L, Burba DJ.Adaptive and nonadaptive stress remodeling in Thoroughbred racehorses leads to most of their musculoskeletal injuries, and imaging plays an important role in its detection. Bone scintigraphy is important for detecting stress remodeling and stress fractures and aids in decision making when more than one lesion is present on MRI or radiographic examinations. MRI likely represents the best modality for the assessment of osteoarthritis of the metacarpophalangeal and metatarsophalangeal joints. Ultrasonography remains important as the first modality for the assessment of tendon and ligamentous inju...
King JN, Zubrod CJ, Schneider RK, Sampson SN, Roberts G.Two hundred and thirty-two horses with lameness localized to the metacarpo(tarso)phalangeal (MCP/MTP) region without a radiographic diagnosis were evaluated. All horses had high-field magnetic resonance (MR) imaging of the MCP/MTP region performed for the lame limb and the contralateral limb for comparison. There were 46 horses that had bilateral abnormalities in the forelimbs; 27 of these horses were not lame in the contralateral limb at the time of examination. Bilateral hind limb abnormalities were observed in 37 horses; 22 horses were not lame in the contralateral limb. Soft tissue abnorma...
Werpy NM, Ho CP, Garcia EB, Kawcak CE.Eight skeletally mature equine cadaver distal forelimbs were imaged using T2-weighted fast spin echo (FSE) sequences in a 1.0 T horizontal bore magnet. Each limb was parallel to the main magnetic field and with 16° angulation of the limb relative to the main magnetic field, which places one of the collateral ligaments of the distal interphalangeal joint at or near the magic angle. Each limb was imaged using an echo time (TE) of 80, 100, 120, and 140 ms. Reversal of the magic angle effect was achieved at echo time of 140 ms. However, given the alterations in tissue contrast and subjective decr...
Kamm JL, Goodrich LR, Werpy NM, McIlwraith CW.To describe regions of the thoracic and pelvic limb proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joints that are arthroscopically accessible and identify soft tissue structures that should be avoided during arthroscope and instrument placement. Methods: Experimental ex vivo descriptive study. Methods: Horses (n = 15). Methods: Cadaver limbs (n = 36) were used for anatomic modeling, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with MRI-compatible needles, computed tomography with contrast arthrography, and arthroscopy of the PIP joint. Two arthroscopic approaches to the dorsal joint pouch were compared. Results: With ar...
Zauscher JM, Estrada R, Edinger J, Lischer CJ.To evaluate intra- and interobserver variability in ultrasonographic measurements of the proximal aspect of the suspensory ligament (PSL) in the horse. Objective: A minimum difference of ≥20% is required to differentiate reliably between physiological and pathological alterations related to dimensions. Methods: Two operators examined the PSL in all 4 limbs of 14 horses twice using different techniques and different probes with and without standoff pads. Measurements were taken from the longitudinal and transverse images. Inter- and intraoperator variability was evaluated using agreement indi...
Holowinski ME, Solano M, Maranda L, García-López JM.Adhesions occur in the navicular bursa between the deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) and other structures. Our objectives were to describe the appearance of navicular bursa adhesions on high-field magnetic resonance (MR) images, to compare these findings to findings at navicular bursoscopy, and to determine the prevalence of lesions in the remainder of the podotrochlear apparatus. Sixteen forelimbs from 14 horses that underwent MR imaging and navicular bursoscopy were evaluated. Adhesions were considered type 1 when characterized by a discontinuity in the navicular bursa fluid signal between t...
Ramzan PH, Palmer L, Dallas RS, Shepherd MC.Ultrasonographic (US) abnormalities of the suspensory ligament branch (SLB) have been poorly investigated but can have considerable impact on market value and career path when encountered in athletic horses. There is a need for determination of the prevalence and relationship to clinical injury of these US abnormalities in the Thoroughbred (TB) racehorse. Objective: To establish the prevalence of, and the repeatability of an US grading system for, subclinical US abnormalities of the forelimb SLB in a population of UK TB flat racehorses. Methods: Ultrasonographic assessment of the forelimb SLBs...
McLellan J, Plevin S, Taylor E.3 horses were evaluated because of lameness and swelling of the stifle joint subsequent to trauma. Results: All horses had characteristic clinical signs of stifle joint pain and effusion. A medial patellar fracture and lateral collateral ligament avulsion fracture were visible ultrasonographically in each. Radiography, including standard as well as flexed lateromedial, cranioproximal-craniodistal oblique (skyline patellar), and laterally stressed caudocranial views, revealed similar findings. Results: Arthroscopic surgery to remove the patellar fracture was attempted in 1 horse with severe des...
Clegg PD.Tendon and ligament injuries continue to be one of the most frequent causes of orthopaedic injury and early retirement in the Thoroughbred racehorse. In the UK, the Horserace Betting Levy Board has invested considerable research funding in the last decade in order to investigate aspects of tendon epidemiology, biology and therapy, in order to decrease both the welfare and economic consequence of such injuries. This review summarises key aspects of this research effort and identifies specific research directions for the future.
Schramme M, Josson A, Linder K.The suspensory ligament is difficult to image accurately, partly because it contains ligamentous fibers, as well as noncollagenous adipose and muscle tissue in the normal horse. Our hypothesis was that magnetic resonance (MR) imaging would be more accurate than ultrasonography in identifying the size of the suspensory ligament and the presence and size of noncollagenous tissues within the ligament. Eleven horses were used for ultrasonographic and MR imaging and histologic evaluation of the rear suspensory ligament. The origin and body of the normal suspensory ligament had a heterogenous appear...
Geburek F, Stadler P.Conventional treatments of equine tendon injuries lead to an unsatisfactory healing process that usually results in a relatively high recurrence rate. Therefore, in recent years so-called regenerative therapeutics were studied scientifically in vitro and in laboratory animals. These include substances that ideally lead to the formation of replacement tissue, which in contrast to the low quality scar, has similar functional properties as the original intact tendon. Currently, a plethora of different substrates is either commercially available or can be produced in practice with the help of kits...
Rich FR, Glisson RR.In vitro failure modes and mechanical properties of the equine cranial cruciate ligament (CCL) were evaluated in 15 stifle joints from 10 ponies. Ponies were from 3 to 25 years of age and weighed from 122 to 208 kg. Femur-CCL-tibia specimens were mounted in 48 degrees of flexion, distracted until a 500-g tensile preload was achieved, and then tested by tensile loading to failure. Specimens failed by complete midsubstance CCL rupture (n = 9), combined tibial insertion avulsion fracture and midsubstance CCL rupture (n = 4), and combined femoral origin avulsion fracture and midsubstance CCL ruptu...
Daniel AJ, Leise BS, Selberg KT, Barrett MF.Injuries to the structures within the digital flexor tendon sheath (DFTS) can lead to lameness with a variable degree of effusion in horses. In some cases, effusion is absent or minimal, and this may be related to the chronicity and type of injury, or veterinary interventions. The purpose of this study was to determine if saline injection into the DFTS would improve ultrasonographic and magnetic resonance imaging of the distal limb without introducing artifact. Nine normal equine cadaver forelimbs were collected. Non-weight-bearing ultrasonographic and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examinat...
Fraschetto C, Dancot M, Vandersmissen M, Denoix JM, Coudry V.To describe type and distribution of tarsal collateral ligament (CL) injuries and to assess the long-term outcome in horses treated conservatively. Methods: 78 horses (median age, 7 years [IQR, 4 to 9.75 years]) of different breeds and disciplines. Methods: Retrospective analysis (2000 through 2020) of horses with tarsal CL lesions diagnosed on ultrasound. The resting time, ability to return to work, and performance level after the injury were compared between horses having a single ligament (group S) or multiple ligaments (group M) affected and according to the case severity. Results: Most of...
Dyson S, Brown V, Collins S, Murray R.Associations between degree of ossification of the cartilages of the foot and injuries to other structures of the foot have been suggested, but have not been investigated by large scale studies. Objective: To describe the frequency of grade >3 ossification of the cartilages of the foot (possibly significant ossification, PSO), mediolateral symmetry of ossification and left-right symmetry between feet; and to investigate associations between PSO and injury of either the collateral ligaments (CLs) of the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joint or the distal phalanx. Objective: Possibly significant os...
Spriet M, Mai W, McKnight A.Increased signal intensity in one of the collateral ligaments of the distal interphalangeal (DIP) joint of sound horses in images acquired using a low-field magnet with vertical orientation of the magnetic field was investigated as a possible manifestation of the magic angle effect. Three isolated equine digits were imaged using the following pulse sequences: (1) spin echo TI, (2) turbo spin echo proton density and T2, and (3) 3D gradient echo T1, in different positions by mildly changing the orientation of the long axis of the digit, in the dorsal plane, relative to the magnetic field. The si...
Tokawa PKA, Brossi PM, Baccarin RYA.This systematic review aims to compile and present information of studies evaluating the effectiveness of autologous conditioned serum (ACS) in the healing of tendon, ligament and articular lesions in humans and horses. A systematic search of articles using Medline, PubMed, Embase, Bireme and Google Scholar was conducted up to August 2020. Studies regarding ACS' use in human orthopedic lesions were included if classified as RCTs, cohort and case-controls. All studies regarding this therapy in equine medicine were included given their scarcity. Pre-clinical experimental studies were selected if...
Walmsley JP.Five horses with a vertical tear in the cranial horn and cranial ligament of the medial meniscus and 2 horses with a similar injury in the lateral meniscus were diagnosed from a series of 126 horses which were examined arthroscopically for stifle lameness. All the lesions had similar characteristics. The tear was about 1 cm from the axial border of the meniscus and its ligament and, in all but one case in which it was incomplete, much of the torn tissue was loosely attached in the axial part of the joint from where it was removed. The remaining meniscus, abaxial to the tear, was displaced cran...
Shikh Alsook MK, Antoine N, Piret J, Moula N, Busoni V, Denoix JM, Gabriel A.The third interosseous muscle (suspensory ligament, TIOM) is composed of connective tissue (CT) with a variable proportion of muscle (MT) and adipose tissue (AT). The aim of our study is to quantify the CT, MT and AT within the body and the branches of right thoracic and pelvic limbs TIOM in sound horses to determine whether there are differences in CT, MT and AT between age, sex, limbs and levels. Right limbs from 11 sound horses were collected. Samples from 6 levels of the TIOM were embedded in paraffin or in Tissue-Tek(®) . Most of the paraffin sections were shredded. Using the cryosection...
Boehart S, Arndt G, Rindermann G, Gmachl M, Carstanjen B.To obtain morphometric values for the superficial digital flexor tendon, deep digital flexor tendon, accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor muscle, and suspensory ligament in the palmar metacarpal region of Icelandic Horses. Methods: 50 nonlame Icelandic Horses in training. Methods: Horses included 2 stallions, 30 geldings, and 18 mares from 4 to 20 years of age with a body mass index from 149.1 to 250.11 kg/m2. Transverse ultrasonographic images were obtained with an 8- to 10-MHz linear transducer and a standoff pad. In both forelimbs, the cross-sectional area, circumference, dorsopalm...
Claerhoudt S, Bergman EH, Saunders JH.This study describes a detailed computed tomographic reference of the normal equine foot. Ten forefeet of five adult cadavers, without evidence of orthopaedic disease, were used. Computed tomography (CT) was performed on all feet. Two-millimetre thick transverse slices were obtained, and sagittal and dorsal planes were reformatted. The CT images were matched with the corresponding anatomic slices. The phalanges and the distal sesamoid bone showed excellent detail. The extensor and flexor tendons (including their attachments) could be clearly evaluated. The collateral (sesamoidean) ligaments co...
Sanders-Shamis M, Bukowiecki CF, Biller DS.Medical records of 7 adult horses with single or multiple ligament failure of the femorotibial ligaments were reviewed to evaluate signalment, history, diagnostic and treatment methods, outcome, and long-term follow-up information. Acute onset of lameness was recorded for most of the horses. Horses with multiple ligament injury had more severe clinical signs than did horses with single ligament injury. Horses with single ligament injury generally required manipulative tests to localize the lameness to the stifle. In all horses, radiography of the stifle assisted in the diagnosis. Horses either...
Bukowiecki CF, Bramlage LR, Gabel AA.Forty-eight limbs of 12 freshly euthanized horses were used to generate data on the strength of the equine suspensory apparatus. The point of failure of the suspensory apparatus of each limb was determined. Immediately before euthanasia, 6 of the 12 horses (thoroughbreds and standardbreds) had been engaged in active training or racing, and six horses in stall and/or pasture activity. In the actively training or racing horses, the point of acute failure of the suspensory apparatus was within the proximal sesamoid bones in 20 (83%) limbs (resulting in 17 apical fractures, 2 basilar fractures, an...
Kümmerle JM, Kummer MR.To describe the arthroscopically accessible anatomy of the tarsal collateral ligaments in the horse. Methods: Descriptive study. Methods: Cadaveric equine hind limbs (n = 24) obtained from horses without tarsal disease. Methods: Two pairs of tarsal joints were used to obtain silicone models of the tarsocrural joint and dissect the tarsal collateral ligaments (CLs). Ten pairs of tarsocrural joints had arthroscopic exploration and the accessible parts of the tarsal CLs were marked with an arthroscopic hook knife. Subsequently, the limbs were dissected and the marked positions were allocated to t...
van den Belt AJ, Keg PR, Kik KJ, Barneveld A.An in vitro study was carried out to define the correlation between the dose and distribution of intratendinous fluid injections in the different flexor tendons/ligaments of the palmar/plantar, metacarpal/metatarsal region of the horse. Injection of 0.1-0.2 ml resulted in a local intratendinous fluid depot showing minimal abaxial spreading and more extensive proximodistal expansion. If 0.3-0.5 ml was injected the abaxial spreading remained minimal but the proximodistal expansion increased significantly, the depots in the axial proximal, mid and distal region flowing together. Also minimal peri...
Baldwin CM, Morgan RE, Crawford AL, Villarino NF, Rubio-Martínez LM.(1) To describe the computed tomography (CT) and gross anatomy of the equine extensor carpi radialis sheath (ECRS) and common digital extensor sheath (CDETS); (2) to describe a single-portal endoscopic examination of the ECRS and CDETS. Methods: Ex vivo experimental. Methods: Thirty clinically normal cadaver thoracic equine limbs severed at the humeral diaphysis. Methods: Ten limbs underwent plain and intrathecal contrast CT examinations and gross dissection of the ECRS and CDETS. Single-portal endoscopic examination of ECRS and CDETS was attempted in 4 limbs and endoscopic examination was per...
McGill SL, Gutierrez-Nibeyro SD, Schaeffer DJ, Hartman SK, O'Brien RT, Joslyn SK.Abnormalities of the deep digital flexor tendon, navicular bone, and collateral sesamoidean ligament can be difficult to visualize using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) if bursal fluid is absent. The use of saline podotrochlear bursography improves podotrochlear apparatus evaluation, however, the technique has disadvantages. The objective of this prospective feasibility study was to describe saline arthrography of the distal interphalangeal joint as an alternative technique for improving MRI visualization of the deep digital flexor tendon, navicular bone, collateral sesamoidean ligament, and ...
Ford TS, Ross MW, Orsini PG.To study communications and boundaries of the middle carpal and carpometacarpal joints of the horse, 50 forelimbs were obtained from fresh cadaver specimens. Blue latex solution (20 +/- 2.5 ml) was injected into the middle carpal joint, and the specimens were frozen in extension. Frozen specimens were cut into 1-cm sagittal sections from the middle of the radius to the middle of the metacarpus. The communications between the middle carpal and carpometacarpal joints and the presence, length, and position of the distopalmar outpouchings of the carpometacarpal joint were recorded. The middle carp...
Aldrich ED, Goodrich LR, Monahan MK, Conway JD, Valdés-Martínez A.Injury to the tendons and ligaments of the equine stifle is a common cause of lameness in horses. Individual radiographic localisation of each tendon and ligament of the stifle has not been previously reported or demonstrated in multiple radiographic projections. Objective: To create a series of radiographs identifying the origins and/or insertions of the tendons and ligaments of the equine stifle. Methods: Descriptive study of radiographic anatomy. Methods: The location of all entheses were determined by gross dissection. The proximal tibia and fibula, distal femur, patella and menisci were i...
Werpy NM, Ho CP, Garcia EB, Kawcak CE.Eight skeletally mature equine cadaver distal forelimbs were imaged using T2-weighted fast spin echo (FSE) sequences in a 1.0 T horizontal bore magnet. Each limb was parallel to the main magnetic field and with 16° angulation of the limb relative to the main magnetic field, which places one of the collateral ligaments of the distal interphalangeal joint at or near the magic angle. Each limb was imaged using an echo time (TE) of 80, 100, 120, and 140 ms. Reversal of the magic angle effect was achieved at echo time of 140 ms. However, given the alterations in tissue contrast and subjective decr...
Rabba S, Bolen G, Verwilghen D, Salciccia A, Busoni V.Foot pain is an important cause of lameness in horses. When horses with foot pain have no detectable radiographic abnormalities, soft-tissue assessment remains a diagnostic challenge without magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. Ultrasonography can provide an alternative to MR imaging when that modality is not available but the extent of changes that might be seen has not been characterized. We reviewed the ultrasonographic findings in 39 horses with lameness responding positively to anesthesia of the palmar digital nerves and without radiographically detectable osseous abnormalities. Thirty of the...
Fjordbakk CT, Marques-Smith P.Interpretation of patellar ligament (PL) ultrasonography may be difficult, as hypoechoic or heterogenous echogenicity are common findings. Verifying suspected disease of equine PLs by histopathology is also problematic as descriptions of normal PL vascularity and histology are scarce. The current study describes the PL and infrapatellar fat pad (IFP) vascular pattern from computed tomography scans of barium perfused normal equine specimens (n = 8; age 10 days to 18 years), as well as routine histology to serve as a reference for future investigations into PL pathology and IFP disease. Re...
Wood AK, Sehgal CM, Polansky M.Sonographic observations were made of the image mean gray scale (MGS) of the flexor tendons and ligaments in the left and right metacarpal regions of each of 10 clinically normal horses. In images made in the dorsal and sagittal planes, the MGS was measured at multiple sites in the superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT), deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT), accessory ligament (AL), and suspensory ligament (SL), and at single sites in the medial and lateral limbs of the SL, and the palmar ligament. Relative sonographic brightness of each tendon and ligament was calculated by dividing the value ...
Nagy A, Dyson S.Cadaver carpi of 30 mature horses with no history of carpal or proximal metacarpal pain were examined using low-field (0.27 T) and high-field (1.5 T) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Normal MRI anatomy in transverse, sagittal, and dorsal plane images was determined by comparison with anatomical specimens and standard texts. Subchondral bone and cortical bone thickness measurements were obtained from standardised sites. There was variable subchondral bone thickness in the radius and carpal bones; subchondral bone thickness was consistently larger at dorsal compared with palmar sites in the...
Swanstrom MD, Stover SM, Hubbard M, Hawkins DA.To determine the relative contributions of the muscles, tendons, and accessory ligaments to the passive force-length properties of the superficial (SDF) and deep digital flexor (DDF) myotendinous complexes. Methods: 8 cadaveric forelimbs from 6 adult Thoroughbreds. Methods: In vitro, limb configurations during slack position and myotendinous lengths during subsequent axial loading of forelimbs were recorded before and after transection of accessory ligaments. Expressions were derived to describe the force-length behavior of each muscle, tendon, and accessory ligament-tendon unit; linear stiffn...
Misheff MM, Stover SM.Because arthrocentesis of the metacarpophalangeal joint through the proximal palmar pouch may induce synovial haemorrhage, this study evaluated arthrocentesis through the lateral collateral sesamoidean ligament. The proximal palmar pouch and collateral sesamoidean ligament approaches were used in contralateral forelimbs to obtain paired initial synovial fluid samples from 16 horses 12 to 15 h before being killed. Synovial fluid samples also were collected from the same joints at necropsy and the subcutis, synovium and articular cartilage were evaluated. Metacarpophalangeal joint arthrocentesis...
Symons JE, Hawkins DA, Fyhrie DP, Upadhyaya SK, Stover SM.The metacarpophalangeal joint (fetlock) is the most commonly affected site of racehorse injury, with multiple observed pathologies consistent with extreme fetlock dorsiflexion. Race surface mechanics affect musculoskeletal structure loading and injury risk because surface forces applied to the hoof affect limb motions. Race surface mechanics are a function of controllable factors. Thus, race surface design has the potential to reduce the incidence of musculoskeletal injury through modulation of limb motions. However, the relationship between race surface mechanics and racehorse limb motions is...
Pluim M, Martens A, Vanderperren K, van Weeren R, Oosterlinck M, Dewulf J, Kichouh M, Van Thielen B, Koene MHW, Luciani A, Plancke L, Delesalle C.High-power laser therapy is often used as a treatment for human sport injuries but controlled standardized studies on its efficacy are lacking. The technique has also been introduced in the equine field and recently promising results were reported in a retrospective study focusing on 150 sporthorses suffering from tendinopathy and desmopathy of the SDFT, DDFT, suspensory ligament, and suspensory branches. The goal of the present study was to evaluate the effect of high-power laser in a standardized lesion model in horses. Lesions were created in all lateral suspensory branches of 12 warmblood ...
Spinella G, Loprete G, Castagnetti C, Musella V, Antonelli C, Vilar JM, Britti D, Capitani O, Valentini S.The aims of this research were to evaluate mean echogenicity (ME) of the deep and superficial digital flexor tendons (DDFT and SDFT), the interosseous muscle (IM), and the accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor tendon (ALDDFT) of the metacarpal region in neonatal foals, and determine the effect of sex, side and body weight on this quantitative ultrasonographic evaluation. Thirteen orthopedically sound neonatal foals were examined. Four areas of study (1A, 1B, 2A, 2B) were identified. Transverse scans of the DDFT, SDFT, IM and ALDDFT were obtained, recorded, and analyzed. The most echoge...
Gutiérrez-Crespo B, Kircher PR, Carrera I.The aim of this study was to describe the appearance of the ligamentous structures of the occipitoatlantoaxial (OAA) region in the normal horse by 3 tesla (3T) magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The MRI images of the longitudinal odontoid ligament, tectorial membrane, dorsal and ventral atlantoaxial ligaments, dorsal atlantooccipital membrane with its reinforcing ligaments, and the lateral atlantooccipital ligaments of 10 horse cadavers were evaluated. All ligaments and membranes were identified in all planes, except for the lateral atlantooccipital ligament in the sagittal plane due to its cra...
Butcher MT, Bertram JE, Benzuidenhout AJ.The distal forelimb of the horse has a complex array of ligaments that play a critical role in determining function of the digit and are often associated with the initiation of foot pathologies. The collateral ligaments of the distal sesamoid bone (CLDS) play an important role in digit stabilization near the end of foot contact and there is also limited evidence to suggest that the CLDS stabilize the proximal interphalangeal joint (PIPJ) during weight bearing. By virtue of their anatomical attachments where the ligaments pass dorsal to the axis of rotation of the PIPJ, it is reasonable to assu...
