The musculoskeletal system in horses encompasses the bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints that facilitate movement and provide structural support. This system is essential for locomotion, athletic performance, and overall health in equine species. The equine skeleton consists of approximately 205 bones, which are connected by joints and supported by a network of muscles and connective tissues. Tendons connect muscles to bones, while ligaments link bones to other bones, contributing to joint stability. The musculoskeletal system is subject to various conditions, including injuries, degenerative diseases, and developmental disorders, which can impact a horse's mobility and performance. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, physiology, pathology, and treatment of musculoskeletal conditions in horses.
Johnston AS, Riggs CM, Cogger N, Benschop J, Rogers CW, Rosanowski SM.Many racing jurisdictions monitor race-day musculoskeletal injury (MSI) but fail to evaluate injuries occurring during training. Additionally, previous risk factor analyses have failed to explore temporal trends in injury occurrence. Objective: To use time-series analysis techniques to identify trends, cyclicity and peaks in MSI incidence, in racehorses training and racing at the Hong Kong Jockey Club (HKJC) from July 2010 to June 2018. Methods: Retrospective longitudinal study. Methods: The monthly incidence of all MSI, superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) injury, suspensory ligament inju...
Kim DH, Lee HG, Sp N, Kang DY, Jang KJ, Lee HK, Cho BW, Yang YM.To understand the athletic characteristics of Thoroughbreds, high-throughput analysis has been conducted using horse muscle tissue. However, an in vitro system has been lacking for studying and validating genes from in silico data. The aim of this study is to validate genes from differentially expressed genes (DEGs) of our previous RNA-sequencing data in vitro. Also, we investigated the effects of exercise-induced stress including heat, oxidative, hypoxic and cortisol stress on horse skeletal muscle derived cells with the top six upregulated genes of DEGs. Enriched pathway analysis was conduct...
Ericson C, Stenfeldt P, Hardeman A, Jacobson I.Kinesiotape theoretically stimulates mechanoreceptive and proprioceptive sensory pathways that in turn may modulate the neuromuscular activity and locomotor function, so alteration of activation, locomotion and/or range of motion (ROM) can be achieved. The aim of this study was to determine whether kinesiotape applied to the abdominal muscles would affect the ROM in flexion-extension (sagittal plane) in the thoracolumbar back of horses at trot. The study design was a paired experimental study, with convenient sample. Each horse was randomly placed in the control or the intervention group and t...
Han H, McGivney BA, Farries G, Katz LM, MacHugh DE, Randhawa IAS, Hill EW.Thoroughbred horse racing is a global sport with major hubs in Europe, North America, Australasia and Japan. Regional preferences for certain traits have resulted in phenotypic variation that may result from adaptation to the local racing ecosystem. Here, we test the hypothesis that genes selected for regional phenotypic variation may be identified by analysis of selection signatures in pan-genomic SNP genotype data. Comparing Australian to non-Australian Thoroughbred horses (n = 99), the most highly differentiated loci in a composite selection signals (CSS) analysis were on ECA6 (34.75-34.85 ...
MacKechnie-Guire R, MacKechnie-Guire E, Fairfax V, Fisher M, Hargreaves S, Pfau T.There is a paucity of evidence on the effect that rider asymmetry has on equine locomotion. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of rider asymmetry on equine locomotion by using a novel approach to induce rider asymmetry. Ten nonlame horses were recruited for this study. Joint center markers were used to capture 2D kinematics (Quintic Biomechanics) of the horse and rider and horses were equipped with seven inertial sensors positioned at the fifth (T5) and eighteenth (T18) thoracic vertebrae, third lumbar (L3) vertebra, tubera sacrale (TS), and left and right tubera coxae. Rider asy...
Santschi EM, Whitman JL, Prichard MA, Lopes MAF, Pigott JH, Brokken MT, Jenson PW, Johnson CR, Morrow C, Brusie RW, Juzwiak JS, Morehead JP.To describe subchondral lucencies (SCL) in the equine proximal tibia, several treatment options, and clinical outcomes. Methods: Retrospective study. Methods: Seventeen horses with proximal tibial SCL. Methods: Medical record and radiograph review. Follow-up was obtained via examination and radiography when possible and by telephone and race records when required. The median duration of follow-up was 20 months (range, 0-48). Results: Proximal tibial SCL were associated with lameness in 14 of 17 horses. Subchondral lucencies were primary in 11 horses and secondary to an ipsilateral medial fem...
Satoh M, Higuchi T, Inoue S, Miyakoshi D, Kajihara A, Gotoh T, Shimizu Y.Recent studies have assessed the cricoarytenoideus dorsalis muscle (CAD) using transoesophageal ultrasonography in equine recurrent laryngeal neuropathy (RLN). We assessed the CAD using the external transcutaneous ultrasound technique, which may constitute an easier method in horses. Objective: To evaluate ultrasonographic imaging of the left cricoarytenoideus dorsalis muscle (LCAD) and right cricoarytenoideus dorsalis muscle (RCAD) as a diagnostic tool for RLN using the transcutaneous ultrasound technique. Methods: Cross-sectional study. Methods: The axial plane thickness, cross-sectional are...
Kadic LIM, Rodgerson DH, Newsom LE, Spirito MA.Osteochondritis dissecans (OCD) of the distal intermediate ridge of the tibia (DIRT) is commonly identified on either the lateral to medial (LM) or dorso45°medial-plantarolateral oblique (D45M-PLO) projection of the tarsus. This manuscript describes a retrospective case series out of Hagyard Equine Medical Institute, for which medical records and radiographic projections of the tarsus were reviewed, consistent with Keeneland's repository requirements. This original investigation identified seven yearling Thoroughbred horses between 2008 and 2018 with radiographic signs of atypical osteochondr...
Farfan M, Genton M, Rossignol F.To describe reliable minimally invasive procedures for (1) removing cartilage by joint distraction and articular drilling for equine metacarpophalangeal (MCP)/metatarsophalangeal (MTP) arthrodesis; (2) applying a palmar/plantar tension band without MCP/MTP joint luxation. Methods: Experimental study. Methods: Cadaveric equine limbs (n = 12). Methods: All limbs were used to evaluate the drilling technique. First the MCP/MTP joint was distracted with a 5.5-mm cortical screw. Then, through four stab incisions, articular cartilage was removed with a 4.5-mm drill. Six randomly chosen limbs were the...
Perrone G, Lastra Y, González C, Caggiano N, Giménez R, Pareja R, De Simone E.Osteoarthritis (OA) is the most prevalent arthropathy in sport horses. The administration of a platelet lysate (PL) is an alternative method for the treatment of musculoskeletal conditions. The mechanisms by which PL exerts its beneficial effects have not been determined, and less is known about its effect on the activity of the proteolytic enzymes of the synovial fluid of equines with OA. In this work, the effect of the administration of PL to horses with OA was analyzed both clinically and molecularly by determining the levels of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2), matrix metalloproteinase-9...
Lemirre T, Santschi E, Girard C, Fogarty U, Chapuis L, Richard H, Beauchamp G, Laverty S.The juvenile equine medial femoral condyle (MFC) is frequently affected with radiographic changes (sclerosis and subchondral lucencies) that arise at a similar site to juvenile osteochondritis dissecans (JOCD) in children. There is little information on maturation of the MFC. To describe the normal development of the equine MFC osteochondral unit from birth to 2 years. Unassigned: Micro CT, histology and immunohistochemistry were performed on healthy equine MFCs (n = 29) at sites where lesions occur. Parameters assessed included: cartilage thickness; the epiphyseal growth plate cartilage org...
Tabor G, Nankervis K, Fernandes J, Williams J.Outcome measures (OMs) are a requirement of professional practice standards in human and canine physiotherapy practice for measurement of health status. Measures such as pain and functional capacity of specific regions are used to track treatment impact and can be used to develop optimal management strategies. To achieve comparable patient care in equine physiotherapy, OMs must be incorporated into practice; however, no reliable and valid OMs exist for equine rehabilitation. This study utilised the experience and opinion of a panel of experts working in the equine rehabilitation sphere to gain...
Prochno HC, Barussi FM, Bastos FZ, Weber SH, Bechara GH, Rehan IF, Michelotto PV.Infrared thermography has been used to help in diagnosing lameness. It is hypothesized that, if used in a routine basis, it could help in understanding musculoskeletal modifications during race training. This study aimed to evaluate thermal variation in the musculoskeletal regions of young Thoroughbred (TB) horses during their initial months of race training. Thermographic examinations were performed once every 2 weeks on 16 (10 male, 6 female) two-year-old TB racehorses, from arrival to the racetrack in June 2016, until January 2017, for a total of 16 evaluations. Thermographic imaging was pe...
McGivney BA, Han H, Corduff LR, Katz LM, Tozaki T, MacHugh DE, Hill EW.The Thoroughbred horse is a highly valued domestic animal population under strong selection for athletic phenotypes. Here we present a high resolution genomics-based analysis of inbreeding in the population that may form the basis for evidence-based discussion amid concerns in the breeding industry over the increasing use of small numbers of popular sire lines, which may accelerate a loss of genetic diversity. In the most comprehensive globally representative sample of Thoroughbreds to-date (n = 10,118), including prominent stallions (n = 305) from the major bloodstock regions of the w...
Chapman HS, Gale AL, Dodson ME, Linardi RL, Ortved KF.Bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (BM-MSCs) are being investigated for their potential in the treatment of musculoskeletal injuries, including tendon and ligament lesions, and cartilage lesions. Culture expansion of cells has traditionally been performed in medium supplemented with fetal bovine serum (FBS), however, concerns regarding the antigenicity and potential viral or prion contamination of FBS have prompted interest in alternative medium supplements. Platelet lysate (PL) contains elevated concentrations of growth factors, including transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), pla...
Sprick M, Koch C.A 12-year-old, 170 kg, Shetland pony mare was presented with an acute severe right pelvic limb lameness and concurrent upward fixation of the right patella. The affected limb was rotated externally and adducted with a prominent greater trochanter and the right calcaneal tuber being more proximal than its left counterpart. Radiographic examination revealed complete dislocation of the right femoral head from the acetabular cavity in a dorsal and caudal direction. A closed reduction of the coxofemoral luxation was performed successfully under general anaesthesia. A full-body animal rescue and t...
Veerasammy B, Delli-Rocili M, Jensen M, Cribb N, Zur Linden A.A 3-year-old gelding was presented for further evaluation and treatment of a swelling over the left mandible and inability to eat and drink. Radiographs of the mandible were unremarkable. Computed tomography (CT) of the head demonstrated a fracture of the basihyoid bone and partial avulsion of the medial pterygoid muscle. Ultrasound examination was performed to establish a baseline and confirmed the fracture. The gelding was managed conservatively, recovered uneventfully, and was able to return to training after 4 months of rest. Key clinical message: Computed tomography and ultrasonography in...
Salek Ardestani S, Aminafshar M, Zandi Baghche Maryam MB, Banabazi MH, Sargolzaei M, Miar Y.Selective breeding has led to gradual changes at the genome level of horses. Deciphering selective pressure patterns is progressive to understand how breeding strategies have shaped the sport horse genome; although, little is known about the genomic regions under selective pressures in sport horse breeds. The major goal of this study was to shed light on genomic regions and biological pathways under selective pressures in sport horses. In this study, whole-genome sequences of 16 modern sport and 35 non-sport horses were used to investigate the genomic selective signals of sport performance, by...
Takahashi Y, Mukai K, Ohmura H, Takahashi T.Muscle activities of the major hindlimb muscles have been reported to decrease with fatigue in horses. However, those in other muscles have been scarcely reported. We aimed to quantify fatigue-induced electromyographic changes in head and neck muscles and muscles around the shoulder joints in horses. Surface electromyographic recording of the splenius, brachiocephalicus, infraspinatus, and deltoid muscles was performed on a total of nine healthy Thoroughbred horses. Horses galloped on a treadmill inclined to 3% at a constant speed (12.7-14.6 m/second) to make them fatigued after approximately...
Journal of biomechanicsDecember 24, 2019
Volume 100 109594 doi: 10.1016/j.jbiomech.2019.109594
Malekipour F, Hitchens PL, Whitton RC, Lee PV.Subchondral bone (SCB) microdamage is prevalent in the joints of human athletes and animals subjected to high rate and magnitude cyclic loading of the articular surface. Quantifying the effect of such focal in vivo fatigue-induced microdamage on the mechanical response of the tissue is critical for the understanding of joint surface injury and the development of osteoarthritis. Thus, we aimed to quantify the mechanical properties of cartilage-bone from equine third metacarpal (MC3) condyles, which is a common area of accumulated microdamage due to repetitive impact loading. We chose a non-dest...
Ikeda Y, Ishihara A, Nakajima M, Yamada K.Thoroughbred racehorses are commonly affected with superficial digital flexor (SDF) tendinopathy. This study aimed to identify risk factors for SDF tendinopathy in racing horses. The authors selected racehorses (n=292) with SDF tendinopathy from the medical records of a racetrack. As a risk factor associated with track-related variables, the SDF tendinopathy odds ratio (OR) was significantly high for a sloppy track surface compared with a standard track surface. Regarding risk factors associated with race-related variables, the SDF tendinopathy OR was significantly high in the following cases:...
Horstmeier C, Ahrberg AB, Berner D, Burk J, Gittel C, Hillmann A, Offhaus J, Brehm W.The magic angle effect increases the MRI signal of healthy tendon tissue and could be used for more detailed evaluation of tendon structure. Furthermore, it could support the discrimination of hypointense artefacts induced by contrast agents such as superparamagnetic iron oxide used for cell tracking. However, magic angle MRI of the equine superficial digital flexor tendon has not been accomplished in vivo in standing low-field MRI so far. The aim of this in vivo study was to evaluate the practicability of this magic angle technique and its benefit for tracking superparamagnetic iron oxide-lab...
Lescun TB, Adams SB, Main RP, Nauman EA, Breur GJ. The objectives of this study were to validate a finite element model of the equine distal limb transfixation cast and to determine the effect of six transcortical pin parameters on bone-pin interface (BPI) stresses in the third metacarpal bone. Methods: A transfixation cast finite element model was developed from a computed tomography scan of the third metacarpal bone and modelled pin elements. The model was validated by comparing strain measured around a 6.3-mm transfixation pin in the third metacarpal bone with the finite element model. The pin parameters of diameter, number, location,...
Bao T, Han H, Li B, Zhao Y, Bou G, Zhang X, Du M, Zhao R, Mongke T, Laxima , Ding W, Jia Z, Dugarjaviin M, Bai D.Skeletal muscle is the largest organ system in the mammalian body and plays a key role in locomotion of horses. Fast and slow muscle fibers have different abilities and functions to adapt to exercises. To investigate the RNA and miRNA expression profiles in the muscles with different muscle fiber compositions on Mongolian horses. We examined the muscle fiber type population and produced deep RNA sequencing for different parts of skeletal muscles. And chose two of them with the highest difference in fast and slow muscle fiber population (splenius and gluteus medius) for comparing the gene expre...
Haussler KK, Manchon PT, Donnell JR, Frisbie DD.Low-level laser therapy has been used clinically to treat musculoskeletal pain; however, there is limited evidence available to support its use in treating back pain in horses. The objective of this study was to evaluate the clinical effectiveness of low-level laser therapy and chiropractic care in treating thoracolumbar pain in competitive western performance horses. The subjects included 61 Quarter Horses actively involved in national western performance competitions judged to have back pain. A randomized, clinical trial was conducted by assigning affected horses to either laser therapy, chi...
Maśko M, Zdrojkowski L, Domino M, Jasinski T, Gajewski Z.The natural head and neck position (HNP) of horses differs from the position in horse riding when bit is used. The special lunging aids (LAs) are applied in order to modify HNP. Different types of LAs have the potential to affect the work of horse muscles and the superficial thermographic patterns (STPs). The effects of thre LAs on STPs of neck, chest, back, and hindquarters were investigated. Methods: Sixteen leisure horses were lunged with freely moving head (FMH), rubber band (RB), chambon (CH), and triangle side reins (TRs). The thermographic images (n = 896) were analyzed before/after lun...
Moshage SG, McCoy AM, Polk JD, Kersh ME.Bone adaptation is in part driven by mechanical loading, and exercise during youth has been shown to have life-long benefits for bone health. However, the development of early exercise-based interventions that reduce the incidence of fractures in racing horses is limited by the lack of characterization of normal development in growing bone. Previous efforts to quantify bone development in the horse have relied on repeated radiographs or peripheral quantitative computed tomography scans, which are limited in their assessment of the entire bone. In this study, we acquired computed tomography sca...
Labens R, Schramme MC, Murray RC, Bolas N.High-field MRI of the proximal metacarpal/metatarsal region has been associated with great diagnostic potential and clinical reports of standing low-field MRI of the forelimb suggest the same. To better understand diagnostic outcomes with standing low-field MRI of the proximal suspensory region, a prospective survey study was conducted and users of a widely available system questioned on their experience, operating procedures, and interpretation of standing low-field MRI findings. Response data included scores on a modified Likert scale from which weighted ratings were calculated for statistic...
Young JM, Schoonover MJ, Kembel SL, Taylor JD, Bauck AG, Gilliam LL.To evaluate the analgesic effects of orally administered gabapentin on horses with chronic thoracic limb lameness. Methods: Randomized, crossover design. Methods: A total of 14 adult horses with chronic thoracic limb lameness. Methods: Following baseline measurement of lameness, horses were administered each of four treatments orally in grain: treatment G, gabapentin (20 mg kg) twice daily for 13 doses; treatment F, firocoxib (171 mg once, then 57 mg once daily for six doses); treatment GF, gabapentin and firocoxib at previously stated doses and frequencies; or treatment C, grain only as a con...
Ribitsch I, Gueltekin S, Keith MF, Minichmair K, Peham C, Jenner F, Egerbacher M.Aging is hypothesized to be associated with changes in tendon matrix composition which may lead to alteration of tendon material properties and hence propensity to injury. Altered gene expression may offer insights into disease pathophysiology and thus open new perspectives toward designing pathophysiology-driven therapeutics. Therefore, the current study aimed at identifying naturally occurring differences in tendon micro-morphology and gene expression of newborn, young and old horses. Age-related differences in the distribution pattern of tendon fibril thickness and in the expression of the ...
Self ZT, Spence AJ, Wilson AM.We used a radio tracking system to examine the speed of 373 racehorses on different gradients on an undulating racecourse during 33 races, each lasting a few minutes. Horses show a speed detriment on inclines (0.68 m · s(-1) · 1% gradient(-1), r(2) = 0.97), the magnitude of which corresponds to trading off the metabolic cost (power) of height gain with the metabolic cost (power) of horizontal galloping. A similar relationship can be derived from published data for human runners. The horses, however, were also slower on the decline (-0.45 m · s(-1) · 1% gradient(-1), r(2) = 0.92). Human ath...
Wickler SJ, Greene HM, Egan K, Astudillo A, Dutto DJ, Hoyt DF.The relationship between fatigue and stride and/or muscle stiffness requires further study. Objective: To measure stride parameters in horses undergoing fatigue associated with running at submaximal speeds both on a treadmill and in an endurance ride. Objective: Stride frequencies and estimates of hindlimb stiffness would be decreased in fatigued horses. Methods: Horses were fatigued using 2 paradigms: run to exhaustion at a treadmill (4.5 m/sec, 6% incline) and finishing an 80 km endurance ride. Videos were digitised before and after fatigue and analysed for stride parameters: hind limb lengt...
Miyata H, Itoh R, Sato F, Takebe N, Hada T, Tozaki T.Variants of the Myostatin gene have been shown to have an influence on muscle hypertrophy phenotypes in a wide range of mammalian species. Recently, a Thoroughbred horse with a C-Allele at the g.66493737C/T single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) has been reported to be suited to short-distance racing. In this study, we examined the effect of the Myostatin SNP on muscle fiber properties in young Thoroughbred horses during a training period. To investigate the effect of the Myostatin SNP on muscle fiber before training, several mRNA expressions were relatively quantified in biopsy samples from the...
Riemersma DJ, van den Bogert AJ, Jansen MO, Schamhardt HC.Strains in the tendons of the m. flexor digitalis superficialis (superficial digital flexor, SDFT) and m. flexor digitalis profundus (deep digital flexor, DDFT) tendons, the accessory ligament of the deep digital flexor muscle (inferior check ligament, ICL) and the m. interosseus medius (suspensory ligament, SL) of 5 ponies were recorded at the walk and trot using mercury-in-silastic strain gauges (MISS), on a hard surface (brick pavement) and on sand. The horses were shod with normal, flat shoes. On pavement, strain in the SDFT, DDFT and SL increased significantly from the walk (2.19%, 1.15% ...
Gellman K, Ruina A.Horses stand for most of each day. Although they can use various leg configurations (postures), they usually stand with vertical legs. Why? We addressed this question with a 2D quasi-static model having three rigid parts: a trunk, massless fore-limbs and massless rear limbs, with hinges at the shoulders, hips, and hooves. The postural parameter we varied was ℓg, the distance between the hooves. For a given ℓg, statics finds an equilibrium configuration which, with no muscle stabilization (i.e. using minimal effort) is unstable. We assume a horse uses that configuration. To measure the neur...
Van Harreveld PD, Lillich JD, Kawcak CE, Gaughan EM, Mclaughlin RM, Debowes RM.To evaluate clinical effects of immobilization followed by remobilization and exercise on the metacarpophalangeal joint (MPJ) in horses. Methods: 5 healthy horses. Methods: After lameness, radiographic, and force plate examinations to determine musculoskeletal health, 1 forelimb of each horse was immobilized in a fiberglass cast for 7 weeks, followed by cast removal and increasing amounts of exercise, beginning with hand-walking and ending with treadmill exercise. Lameness examination, arthrocentesis of both MPJ, single-emulsion radiographic examination, nuclear scintigraphic examination, grou...
Mendoza L, Lejeune JP, Caudron I, Detilleux J, Sandersen C, Deliège B, Serteyn D.Osteochondrosis dissecans (OCD) is a developmental orthopedic disease caused by a failure of the endochondral ossification in epiphyseal plates and joint cartilage. This trouble may induce the presence of osteochondral fragments in the articulation, fissures or subchondral bone cysts in the growth cartilage. Occurrence of osteochondrosis is influenced by a complex interaction of different factors. Among these, the effect of the housing and the feeding of the foals during their first months of life, have been described as risk factors for the development of osteochondrosis. The aim of this stud...
Watanabe T, Imamura Y, Suzuki D, Hosaka Y, Ueda H, Hiramatsu K, Takehana K.The equine superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) has a graded distribution of collagen fibril diameters, with predominantly small-diameter fibrils in the region of the myotendinous junction (MTJ), a gradual increase in large-diameter fibrils toward the osteotendinous junction (OTJ), and a mixture of small- and large-diameter fibrils in the middle metacarpal (MM) region. In this study, we investigated the ultrastructure of the SDFT, to correlate the spatial relationship of the collagen fibrils with the graded distribution. The surface-to-surface distances of pairs of fibrils were found to be...
Roepstorff L, Wiestner T, Weishaupt MA, Egenvall E.The aim of this study was to compare an inertial motion system (IMS) to an optical based locomotion analysis system measuring limb sagittal segment angles in horses at the walk and trot. The metatarsal/metacarpal bones of two horses (20 trials) were fitted with optical system markers and an IMS. Between the systems, measuring range of motion (ROM) of the sagittal metatarsal/metacarpal bone angles, the IMS measured higher ROM than the optical system (bias 1.6°; precision at 1.96 standard deviation 1.9°). The same angle data were used to assess inter-limb symmetry by calculating phase shift be...
Barrey E.A greater knowledge of the biomechanics is necessary in equine orthopaedics, therapeutics, farriery and for the selection of athletic horses. The purpose of this study was to determine the normal distribution of the vertical component of the hoof force using a measuring boot. The measurements were carried out using 20 sound horses walking and trotting on a straight hard track. A force measuring horseshoe, attached to the foot with a boot, provided continuous recording of vertical forces at four locations on the hoof. For each measuring location, a computer program produced curves and calculate...
Haussler KK, Martin CE, Hill AE.Spinal mobilisation and spinal manipulative therapy (SMT) are being applied to horses; however, there are limited objective measures of their effects on spinal mobility or stiffness in actively ridden horses. Objective: To quantify passive spinal movements induced during dorsoventral mobilisation of the trunk and to identify any potential effects of SMT on measures of spinal mobility within the thoracolumbar region in standing horses. We hypothesise that displacement amplitudes will be significantly increased across vertebral levels after SMT, compared to spinal mobilisation only within the co...
Symons JE, Garcia TC, Stover SM.The effect of racetrack surface (dirt or synthetic) on distal hindlimb kinematics of racehorses running at competition speeds is not known. Objective: To compare distal hindlimb and hoof kinematics during stance of breezing (unrestrained gallop) racehorses between dirt and synthetic surfaces. Methods: Two-dimensional kinematic video analysis of 5 Thoroughbred racehorses galloping at high speeds (12-17 m/s) on a dirt racetrack and a synthetic racetrack. Methods: The positions of kinematic markers applied to the left hindlimb were recorded at 500 Hz. Position, velocity and acceleration of jo...
Ropka-Molik K, Stefaniuk-Szmukier M, Piórkowska K, Szmatoła T, Bugno-Poniewierska M.Apoptosis plays an important role in the regulation of healthy tissue growth and development as well as in controlling the maintenance of homeostasis in exercising muscles. During an intensive physical effort, the regulation of cell death by apoptosis results in the replacement of unaccustomed muscle cells by new cells that are better suited to exercise. The aim of this study was to determine the expression of two genes (SH3FR1 and SH3RF2) that control apoptosis in muscle tissues during training periods characterized by different intensities. The gene expression levels were estimated using rea...
Martig S, Hitchens PL, Stevenson MA, Whitton RC.The repetitive large loads generated during high-speed training and racing commonly cause subchondral bone injuries in the metacarpal condyles of racehorses. Adaptive bone modelling leads to focal sclerosis at the site of highest loading in the palmar aspect of the metacarpal condyles. Information on whether and how adaptive modelling of subchondral bone changes during the career of a racehorse is sparse. The aim of this cross-sectional study was to describe the changes in subchondral bone micromorphology in the area of highest loading in the palmar aspect of the metacarpal condyle in thorough...
Swanberg JE, Clouser JM, Westneat SC, Marsh MW, Reed DB.Animal production is a dangerous industry and increasingly reliant on a Latino workforce. Within animal production, little is known about the risks or the occupational hazards of working on farms involved in various aspects of thoroughbred horse breeding. Extant research suggests that horse workers are at risk of musculoskeletal and respiratory symptoms, kicks, and other injuries. However, limited known research has examined the experiences of the industry's workers, including immigrant workers, despite their prominence and increased vulnerability. Using data collected from thoroughbred farm r...
Mascarello F, Veggetti A.The intrinsic laryngeal muscles of the horse, donkey, sheep, ox, pig, dog and cat were examined for myosin ATPase, following acid and alkali pre-incubation, SDH and M-alphaGPDH activities. In all laryngeal muscles two fibre types, betaR and alphaR, belonging to slow and fast-contracting, fatigue-resistant motor units (types S and FR) were present in different proportions. The alphaW fibre type, belonging to fast-contracting and fatigue-resistant motor units was absent (type FF). The alphaR fibres of the dog and the cat were subdivided into groups by the various degrees of acid stable myosin AT...
White-Lewis S, Johnson R, Ye S, Russell C.To compare equine-assisted therapy to exercise education on pain, range of motion, and quality of life in adults and older adults with arthritis. Quality of life for adults and older adults is negatively impacted by arthritis pain, stiffness, and decreased function. Equine-assisted therapy provides unique movements to the rider's joints and muscles improving pain, range of motion, and quality of life and has improved outcomes in balance, gait, strength, functional mobility, and spasticity for older adults, stroke, spinal cord injury, and multiple sclerosis patients. No research has investigate...
Brown MP, Trumble TN, Plaas AH, Sandy JD, Romano M, Hernandez J, Merritt KA.(1) To investigate the effects of exercise and osteochondral (OC) injury on synovial fluid (SF) chondroitin sulfate (CS) and hyaluronan (HA) concentration and chain length, (2) to compare SF and cartilage CS data from joints with OC fragmentation, and (3) to compare SF CS and HA profiles with those seen in serum from the same horses. Methods: Serum and SF were obtained from (1) normal horses after 8 weeks rest, (2) the same horses after 9 months treadmill training, and (3) horses with OC injury from racing. Articular cartilage was also collected from group 3 horses. Concentrations and chain le...
Holmström M, Fredricson I, Drevemo S.Trot in hand, working trot, collected trot, passage and piaffe of 6 Grand Prix dressage horses were recorded by high speed film (250 frames/s). Angular patterns and hoof trajectories of the left fore- and hindlimbs were analysed and presented as mean and standard deviation (s.d.) curves. Speed and stride length decreased and fore- and hind stance phase durations increased with collection resulting in no suspension in piaffe. The diagonal advanced placement was positive in all gaits except for piaffe. Most of the changes in forelimb angular patterns were effects of reduction in forelimb pendula...
García Liñeiro JA, Graziotti GH, Rodríguez Menéndez JM, Ríos CM, Affricano NO, Victorica CL.The multifidus muscle fascicles of horses attach to vertebral spinous processes after crossing between one to six metameres. The fascicles within one or two metameres are difficult to distinguish in horses. A vertebral motion segment is anatomically formed by two adjacent vertebrae and the interposed soft tissue structures, and excessive mobility of a vertebral motion segment frequently causes osteoarthropathies in sport horses. The importance of the equine multifidus muscle as a vertebral motion segment stabilizer has been demonstrated; however, there is scant documentation of the structure a...
Bentley VA, Sample SJ, Livesey MA, Scollay MC, Radtke CL, Frank JD, Kalscheur VL, Muir P.Failure of functional adaptation to protect the skeleton from damage is common and is often associated with targeted remodeling of bone microdamage. Horses provide a suitable model for studying loading-related skeletal disease because horses are physically active, their exercise is usually regulated, and adaptive failure of various skeletal sites is common. We performed a histologic study of the navicular bone of three groups of horses: (1) young racing Thoroughbreds (n = 10); (2) young unshod ponies (n = 10); and (3) older horses with navicular syndrome (n = 6). Navicular syndrome is a painfu...
Maleas G, Mageed M.This retrospective study aimed to evaluate the clinical effect of bone marrow aspirate concentrate (BMAC) and leukocyte rich PRP (LR-PRP) compared to horses undergoing controlled exercise alone in horses with >3 months proximal suspensory desmopathy in hindlimbs (HPSD). Nighty-three horses were divided into three groups according to the treatment: a control (n = 22), LR-PRP (n = 46), and BMAC (n = 25) group. Lameness and ultrasound scores were recorded before treatment (T0) and at 6 months (T1) post-treatment. Records horses considered sound at evaluation and level of performance were addition...
Valberg SJ, McKenzie EC, Eyrich LV, Shivers J, Barnes NE, Finno CJ.Although exertional rhabdomyolysis (ER) is common in Arabian horses, there are no dedicated studies describing histopathological characteristics of muscle from Arabian horses with ER. Objective: To prospectively identify distinctive histopathological features of muscle from Arabian endurance horses with a history of ER (pro-ER) and to retrospectively determine their prevalence in archived samples from Arabian horses with exertional myopathies (retro-ER). Methods: Prospective and retrospective histopathological description. Methods: Middle gluteal muscle biopsies obtained from Arabian controls ...
Gillis C, Sharkey N, Stover SM, Pool RR, Meagher DM, Willits N.Results of studies in human beings and other species have indicated that aging significantly influences the strength, modulus of elasticity, and energy storage ability of tendon. We wanted to determine the effects of aging on the material and ultrasonographic properties of equine superficial digital flexor (SDF) tendon. Ultrasonographic measurements of left forelimb SDF tendon cross-sectional area and mean echogenicity were made in 23 standing horses ranging in age from 2 to 23 years. All horses had not been in work for a minimum of 6 months prior to the study. After euthanasia, left forelimb ...
Rhee HS, Steel CM, Derksen FJ, Robinson NE, Hoh JF.We used immunohistochemistry to examine myosin heavy-chain (MyHC)-based fiber-type profiles of the right and left cricoarytenoideus dorsalis (CAD) and arytenoideus transversus (TrA) muscles of six horses without laryngoscopic evidence of recurrent laryngeal neuropathy (RLN). Results showed that CAD and TrA muscles have the same slow, 2a, and 2x fibers as equine limb muscles, but not the faster contracting fibers expressing extraocular and 2B MyHCs found in laryngeal muscles of small mammals. Muscles from three horses showed fiber-type grouping bilaterally in the TrA muscles, but only in the le...
Martig S, Hitchens PL, Lee PVS, Whitton RC.Subchondral bone injuries often precede articular cartilage damage in osteoarthritis and are common in thoroughbred racehorses due to the accumulation of fatigue damage from high speed racing and training. Thus, racehorses provide a model to investigate the role of subchondral bone in joint disease. We assessed the association of horse and racing related factors and micro-CT based micromorphology of three separate subchondral bone layers with the initial stiffness and compressive fatigue life of bone plugs. Furthermore, we investigated three different definitions of fatigue failure of subchond...
Bobbert MF, Santamaría S.The purpose of the present study was to gain more insight into the contribution of the forelimbs and hindlimbs of the horse to energy changes during the push-off for a jump. For this purpose, we collected kinematic data at 240 Hz from 23 5-year-old Warmbloods (average mass: 595 kg) performing free jumps over a 1.15 m high fence. From these data, we calculated the changes in mechanical energy and the changes in limb length and joint angles. The force carried by the forelimbs and the amount of energy stored was estimated from the distance between elbow and hoof, assuming that this part of the le...
Lee H, Kirkland WG, Whitmore RN, Theis KM, Young HE, Richardson AJ, Jackson RL, Hanson RR.Thicknesses of fresh equine articular cartilage surfaces from the fetlock, carpal and stifle joints were measured employing a needle probe test. Methods: Eighty-seven samples used in measurement were cultivated from fetlock, carpal and stifle joints of 12 deceased within 4 h of death. After approximately three minutes of exposure to air during dissection, all cartilage samples were preserved in a saline solution to keep the articular cartilage hydrated for testing. The thickness was measured on five different spots on the same sample. The thicknesses of the fetlock, carpus and stifle were co...
Haussler KK, Manchon PT, Donnell JR, Frisbie DD.Low-level laser therapy has been used clinically to treat musculoskeletal pain; however, there is limited evidence available to support its use in treating back pain in horses. The objective of this study was to evaluate the clinical effectiveness of low-level laser therapy and chiropractic care in treating thoracolumbar pain in competitive western performance horses. The subjects included 61 Quarter Horses actively involved in national western performance competitions judged to have back pain. A randomized, clinical trial was conducted by assigning affected horses to either laser therapy, chi...
Fowlie JG, Arnoczky SP, Stick JA, Pease AP.By study of the translocation and deformation of equine menisci throughout the range of motion, it may be possible to identify potential mechanical factors in the pathogenesis of injury to the cranial horn of the medial meniscus. Objective: To quantitatively document meniscal translocation and deformation using radiographic and MR imaging, and to evaluate for potential variation between the medial and lateral menisci. Methods: Radiographic markers were embedded in the periphery of the menisci in 6 cadaver stifles. Proximal-distal radiographs were taken at 15° intervals ranging from full flexi...
