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Topic:Musculoskeletal System
The musculoskeletal system in horses encompasses the bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, and joints that facilitate movement and provide structural support. This system is essential for locomotion, athletic performance, and overall health in equine species. The equine skeleton consists of approximately 205 bones, which are connected by joints and supported by a network of muscles and connective tissues. Tendons connect muscles to bones, while ligaments link bones to other bones, contributing to joint stability. The musculoskeletal system is subject to various conditions, including injuries, degenerative diseases, and developmental disorders, which can impact a horse's mobility and performance. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the anatomy, physiology, pathology, and treatment of musculoskeletal conditions in horses.
In vivo measurements of flexor tendon and suspensory ligament forces during trotting using the thoroughbred forelimb model. The purpose of this study was to create a lower forelimb model of the Thoroughbred horse for measuring the force in the superficial and deep digital flexor tendons (SDFT and DDFT), and the suspensory ligament (SL) during a trot. The mass, centers of gravity, and inertial moments in the metacarpus, pastern, and hoof segments were measured in 4 Thoroughbred horses. The moment arms of the SDFT, DDFT, and SL in the metacarpophalangeal (fetlock) and distal interphalangeal (coffin) joints were measured in 7 Thoroughbred horses. The relationship between the fetlock joint angle and the force in the SL...
Posture and movement characteristics of forward and backward walking in horses with shivering and acquired bilateral stringhalt. To investigate and further characterise posture and movement characteristics during forward and backward walking in horses with shivering and acquired, bilateral stringhalt. Objective: To characterise the movement of horses with shivering (also known as shivers) in comparison with control horses and horses with acquired bilateral stringhalt. Methods: Qualitative video analysis of gait in horses. Methods: Owners' and authors' videos of horses with shivering or stringhalt and control horses walking forwards and backwards and manually lifting their limbs were examined subjectively to characterise...
Effect of dietary nonstructural carbohydrate content on activation of 5′-adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase in liver, skeletal muscle, and digital laminae of lean and obese ponies. In EMS-associated laminitis, laminar failure may occur in response to energy failure related to insulin resistance (IR) or to the effect of hyperinsulinemia on laminar tissue. 5'-Adenosine-monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is a marker of tissue energy deprivation, which may occur in IR. Objective: To characterize tissue AMPK regulation in ponies subjected to a dietary carbohydrate (CHO) challenge. Methods: Twenty-two mixed-breed ponies. Methods: Immunohistochemistry and immunoblotting for total AMPK and phospho(P)-AMPK and RT-qPCR for AMPK-responsive genes were performed on laminar...
Use of immunohistochemical staining and electron microscopy to aid in diagnosis of soft tissue sarcomas associated with the fetlock joint in two horses. Soft tissue sarcomas of the equine distal limb associated with joints, sheaths, or bursae have rarely been reported. Accurate diagnosis of these tumors is challenging in both human beings and veterinary species. Immunohistochemical staining and transmission electron microscopy have been used in human beings to reduce misdiagnosis. The current report describes 2 mature horses presenting with lameness and swelling associated with the dorsal aspect of the metacarpo(tarso)phalangeal joint. In both cases, surgical excision was performed with subsequent histological analysis of the masses to determi...
The scaling of uphill and downhill locomotion in legged animals. Animals must continually respond dynamically as they move through complex environments, and slopes are a common terrain on which legged animals must move. Despite this, non-level locomotion remains poorly understood. In this study, we first review the literature on locomotor mechanics, metabolic cost, and kinematic strategies on slopes. Using existing literature we then performed scaling analyses of kinematic variables, including speed, duty factor, and stride-length across a range of body sizes from ants to horses. The studies that examined locomotion on inclines vastly outnumbered those focu...
Swing phase kinematics of horses trotting over poles. Trotting over poles is used therapeutically to restore full ranges of limb joint motion. The mechanics of trotting over poles have not yet been described, hence quantitative evidence for the presumed therapeutic effects is lacking. Objective: To compare limb kinematics in horses trotting over level ground, over low poles and over high poles to determine changes in joint angulations and hoof flight arcs. Methods: Repeated measures experimental study in sound horses. Methods: Standard motion analysis procedures with skin-fixed reflective markers were used to measure swing phase kinematics from 8...
Effect of hoof orientation and ballast on acceleration and vibration in the hoof and distal forelimb following simulated impacts ex vivo. We wished to add to the existing baseline data on impact loading of the distal limb as a precursor to assessing the potential role of impact in injury and joint disease. Objective: To examine the effect of 3 hoof-strike conditions (toe first, flat and heel first) and 2 specimen masses (with and without a ballast of ∼2% body mass) on impact deceleration and vibration frequencies and energies at the hoof, first phalanx and third metacarpal. Methods: Biomechanical experiments in cadaver material. Methods: Eight cadaver limbs were subjected to randomised, repeated controlled trials, in which the...
Biomechanical testing of a novel tendon implant device for the repair of equine flexor tendon lacerations. To compare in vitro strength and failure characteristics of a tendon implant against a 3 loop pulley suture pattern for equine superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) laceration repair. Methods: Experimental. Methods: Cadaveric equine forelimb SDFT (n = 16). Methods: One tendon of each of 8 pair of SDFT was randomly selected for repair with either the 3-loop pulley (3LP) suture pattern using 2 polydioxanone or with 4 stainless steel suture and anchor implants (SA). Ultimate load to failure, mode of failure, gap at failure, and load to 2 mm gap were obtained using a materials testing sys...
Neurotropic T-cell-rich B-cell lymphoma in a 14-year-old Morgan gelding. A 14-year-old Morgan gelding was presented for progressive weakness and muscle atrophy. The horse was initially diagnosed with equine protozoal myelitis based on history, physical examination, and laboratory diagnostics. Despite therapy, the horse declined clinically and was euthanized. Necropsy revealed a rare form of neurotropic lymphoma, described in this report. Lymphome de cellules-B riches en cellules-T neurotropes chez un hongre Morgan âgé de 14 ans. Un hongre Morgan âgé de 14 ans a été présenté pour une faiblesse progressive et une atrophie musculaire. On a d’abord diagnostiq...
Identification and characterization of microRNAs in normal equine tissues by Next Generation Sequencing. The role of microRNAs (miRNAs) as a post-transcriptional gene regulator has been elucidated in a broad range of organisms including domestic animals. Characterization of miRNAs in normal tissues is an important step to investigate the functions of miRNAs in various physiological and pathological conditions. Using Illumina Next Generation Sequencing (NGS) technology, we identified a total of 292 known and 329 novel miRNAs in normal horse tissues including skeletal muscle, colon and liver. Distinct sets of miRNAs were differentially expressed in a tissue-specific manner. The miRNA genes were dis...
Microstructural changes in cartilage and bone related to repetitive overloading in an equine athlete model. The palmar aspect of the third metacarpal (MC3) condyle of equine athletes is known to be subjected to repetitive overloading that can lead to the accumulation of joint tissue damage, degeneration, and stress fractures, some of which result in catastrophic failure. However, there is still a need to understand at a detailed microstructural level how this damage progresses in the context of the wider joint tissue complex, i.e. the articular surface, the hyaline and calcified cartilage, and the subchondral bone. MC3 bones from non-fractured joints were obtained from the right forelimbs of 16 Thor...
Bone fatigue and its implications for injuries in racehorses. Musculoskeletal injuries are a common cause of lost training days and wastage in racehorses. Many bone injuries are a consequence of repeated high loading during fast work, resulting in chronic damage accumulation and material fatigue of bone. The highest joint loads occur in the fetlock, which is also the most common site of subchondral bone injury in racehorses. Microcracks in the subchondral bone at sites where intra-articular fractures and palmar osteochondral disease occur are similar to the fatigue damage detected experimentally after repeated loading of bone. Fatigue is a process that h...
Ultrasound assisted arthroscopic approach for removal of basilar sesamoid fragments of the proximal sesamoid bones in horses. To describe an ultrasound assisted arthroscopic approach for removal of non-articular basilar sesamoid fragments in Thoroughbred yearlings. Methods: Thoroughbred yearlings (n = 7). Methods: Basilar sesamoid fragments identified during pre-sale radiographic examination were removed using a palmar/plantar arthroscopic approach to the fetlock joint and ultrasonographic guidance. Complete fragment removal was confirmed by ultrasonography and radiography. Results: Basilar sesamoid fracture fragments were localized and removed successfully using rongeurs and a radiofrequency probe for soft tissu...
Exercise influences circadian gene expression in equine skeletal muscle. Circadian rhythms are endogenously generated 24-h oscillations that coordinate numerous aspects of mammalian physiology, metabolism and behaviour. The existence of a molecular circadian clock in equine skeletal muscle has previously been demonstrated. This study investigates how the circadian 24-h expression of exercise-relevant genes in skeletal muscle is influenced by a regular exercise regime. Mid-gluteal, percutaneous muscle biopsies were obtained over a 24-h period from six Thoroughbred mares before and after an 8-week exercise programme. Real-time qPCR assays were used to assess the expr...
Bovine calves as ideal bio-indicators for fluoridated drinking water and endemic osteo-dental fluorosis. Relative susceptibility to fluoride (F) toxicosis in the form of osteo-dental fluorosis was observed in an observational survey of 2,747 mature and 887 immature domestic animals of diverse species living in areas with naturally fluoridated (>1.5 ppm F) drinking water. These animals included buffaloes (Bubalus bubalis), cattle (Bos taurus), camels (Camelus dromedarius), donkeys (Equus asinus), horses (Equus caballus), goats (Capra hircus), and sheep (Ovis aries). Of these mature and immature animals, 899 (32.7 %) and 322 (36.3 %) showed evidence of dental fluorosis with varying grades, r...
Estimates of genetic parameters of distal limb fracture and superficial digital flexor tendon injury in UK Thoroughbred racehorses. A retrospective cohort study of distal limb fracture and superficial digital flexor tendon (SDFT) injury in Thoroughbred racehorses was conducted using health records generated by the British Horseracing Authority (BHA) between 2000 and 2010. After excluding records of horses that had both flat and jump racing starts, repeated records were reduced to a single binary record per horse (n = 66,507, 2982 sires), and the heritability of each condition was estimated using residual maximum likelihood (REML) with animal logistic regression models. Similarly, the heritability of each condition was ...
Osteochondral lesions in distal tarsal joints of Icelandic horses reveal strong associations between hyaline and calcified cartilage abnormalities. Osteochondral lesions in the joints of the distal tarsal region of young Icelandic horses provide a natural model for the early stages of osteoarthritis (OA) in low-motion joints. We describe and characterise mineralised and non-mineralised osteochondral lesions in left distal tarsal region joint specimens from twenty-two 30 ±1 month-old Icelandic horses. Combinations of confocal scanning light microscopy, backscattered electron scanning electron microscopy (including, importantly, iodine staining) and three-dimensional microcomputed tomography were used on specimens obtained with guidance f...
Effects of steroids on the morphology and proliferation of canine and equine mesenchymal stem cells of adipose origin – in vitro research. Disorders of the locomotive system, especially those occurring due to degenerative changes of the joints, are serious problems in daily veterinary medical practice. Steroid injections are the main way of treating these disorders. However, this approach brings usually only temporary effects of pain relief, and may cause many side effects. Alternative therapies focus on regeneration of damaged tissue using adult mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Since 2002, the great plasticity and immunomodulatory properties of MSCs isolated from adipose tissue (AdMSCs) have been used successfully in the treatment...
Investigation of de novo unique differentially expressed genes related to evolution in exercise response during domestication in Thoroughbred race horses. Previous studies of horse RNA-seq were performed by mapping sequence reads to the reference genome during transcriptome analysis. However in this study, we focused on two main ideas. First, differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified by de novo-based analysis (DBA) in RNA-seq data from six Thoroughbreds before and after exercise, here-after referred to as "de novo unique differentially expressed genes" (DUDEG). Second, by integrating both conventional DEGs and genes identified as being selected for during domestication of Thoroughbred and Jeju pony from whole genome re-sequencing (WG...
Pharmacological characterization of muscarinic receptors in the contractions of isolated bronchi in the horse. We investigated the effects of nonselective muscarinic antagonist (atropine) and of selective muscarinic subtype 1 (M1), 2 (M2), 3 (M3) antagonists (VU0255035, methoctramine, pFHHSiD, respectively) on the contractions evoked by electrical field stimulation (EFS) or by exogenous ACh in isolated horse bronchial muscle. Atropine completely inhibited neurogenic contractions in a concentration-dependent fashion, whereas selective muscarinic antagonists induced relevant modifications only at the highest concentration tested. Experiments with selective muscarinic antagonists in combination showed tha...
Horses and cows might teach us about human knees. Our comparative study of the knees of horses and cows (paraphrased as highly evolved joggers and as domesticated couch-potatoes, respectively) demonstrates significant differences in the posterior sections of bovine and equine tibial cartilage, which are consistent with specialisation for gait. These insights were possible using a novel analytical measuring technique based on the shearing of small biopsy samples, called dynamic shear analysis. We assert that this technique could provide a powerful new tool to precisely quantify the pathology of osteoarthritis for the medical field.
Effects of intrabursal administration of botulinum toxin type B on lameness in horses with degenerative injury to the podotrochlear apparatus. To determine the safety and short-term efficacy of intrabursal administration of botulinum toxin type B (BTXB) to alleviate lameness in horses with degenerative injury to the podotrochlear apparatus (PA). Methods: 10 Quarter Horses with degenerative injury to the PA. Methods: Degenerative injury to the PA was confirmed with diagnostic analgesia and imaging. Then, BTXB (3.8 to 4.5 U/kg) was injected into the podotrochlear (navicular) bursa of each horse. Three horses were used in a safety evaluation. Subsequently, video recordings of lameness evaluations were obtained for 7 client-owned horses ...
The effect of centre of mass location on sagittal plane moments around the centre of mass in trotting horses. The diagonal limb support pattern at trot provides pitch and roll stability, but little is known about the control of moments about the centre of mass (COM) in horses. Correct COM location is critical in the calculation of pitching moments. The objectives were to determine the effect of COM location on pitching moments in trotting horses and explore how COM location could influence balance. Kinematic (120 Hz) and GRF (4 force plates, 960 Hz) data were collected at trot from three trials of eight horses. The position of the COM was determined from the weighted summation of the segmental COMs an...
The range and prevalence of clinical signs and conformation associated with lameness in working draught donkeys in Pakistan. Lameness is prevalent in working donkeys and has major welfare implications; however, a detailed study of the associated clinical signs is lacking. Objective: To describe the range and prevalence of clinical signs and conformation associated with lameness in working draught donkeys. Methods: Prospective, cross-sectional, observational study. Methods: Data were collected from 102 working draught donkeys in Pakistan. A lameness assessment adapted for working donkeys was used to record clinical signs of lameness, gait, limb conformation and pain responses in the feet, limbs and spine using observ...
In vitro biomechanical comparison of a 5-hole 4.5 mm locking compression plate and 5-hole 4.5 mm dynamic compression plate for equine proximal interphalangeal joint arthrodesis. To compare the biomechanical properties of a 5-hole 4.5 mm narrow locking compression plate (LCP) and 5-hole 4.5 mm narrow dynamic compression plate (DCP) for equine proximal interphalangeal (PIP) joint arthrodesis. Methods: Experimental mechanical study. Methods: Cadaveric adult equine forelimbs (n = 6 pair). Methods: For each forelimb pair, 1 PIP joint was stabilized with LCP and the contralateral PIP joint with DCP. The 6 construct pairs were tested using a single-cycle, 3-point dorsopalmar bending system. PIP joints were evaluated with pre- and post-test radiography. Results: The L...
Diagnostic and therapeutic arthroscopy in the standing horse. This article describes diagnostic arthroscopy and arthroscopic management of selected lesions in the standing equine patient. Details on case selection, patient and operating room preparation, and surgical technique are presented. This information will add techniques that avoid general anesthesia to the equine surgeon's armamentarium.
Methocarbamol suspension for the treatment of rhabdomyolysis in equines. Rhabdomyolysis in equines occurs in horses due to physical overexertion or underlying pathologic myopathy. Methocarbamol is a muscle relaxant that can be used in equines to treat symptoms associated with Rhabdomyolysis. Methocarbamol is available as a solution for injection but is not commercially available as an oral suspension. This article focuses on the treatment of Tying-up caused by overexertion, and details the treatment of Rhabdomyolysis with an oral suspension that was prepared for a veterinarian by a compounding pharmacist.
Muscle fibre type distribution of the thoracolumbar and hindlimb regions of horses: relating fibre type and functional role. Although the majority of equine muscles have a mixed fibre type distribution indicative of diverse functional roles, the predominance of a fibre type can indicate the primary function of a muscle. The deep epaxial musculature has an important role in core spinal stability in humans, reflected as a predominantly muscle fibre type (MFT) I or postural fibre type. The fibre type of the deep epaxial musculature has not been determined in horses. The objective of the study was to determine the MFT distribution in selected muscles of thoracolumbar and hindlimb region of horses. This included deep epa...
