Vaccine development in horses involves the creation and refinement of immunizations to protect equine populations from infectious diseases. This process includes identifying antigens, formulating vaccines, and evaluating their safety and efficacy through clinical trials. Vaccines stimulate the horse's immune system to recognize and combat specific pathogens, thereby reducing the incidence and severity of diseases. Common equine vaccines target diseases such as equine influenza, tetanus, and West Nile virus. This page compiles peer-reviewed research studies and scholarly articles that explore the methodologies, challenges, and advancements in vaccine development for equine health.
Roncaglia-Pereira VA, Dumard CH, Monteiro-Machado M, Melo PA, Fonseca J, Meirelles L, Cunha-Ribeiro L, Souza P, da Silva JL, Castilho L....In this study, we aim to report the persistent presence of anti-SARS-CoV-2 immunoglobulins in pre-immunized mare offspring. Three mares from Vital Brazil Institute were pre-immunized with recombinant SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and became pregnant during this period. After parturition, the mares' serum and colostrum/milk and foal serum were collected over 6 weeks. Our results have shown high and persistent presence of IgG and neutralizing antibodies over the weeks not only in the mares' serum, as expected, but in mares' colostrum/milk and foal serum as well-what were very surprising. This peculia...
Nemoto M, Kawanishi N, Kambayashi Y, Bannai H, Yamanaka T, Garvey M, Cullinane A, Yamayoshi S, Kawaoka Y, Tsujimura K.Reverse genetics (RG) technology is useful for quickly updating influenza vaccine strains. A high-yield backbone (i.e., six segments other than hemagglutinin and neuraminidase) derived from A/Puerto Rico/8/1934 (PR8) has been developed to improve the growth of avian and human influenza viruses. However, for equine influenza virus (EIV), an EIV-derived backbone may have better growth properties due to more-natural segment combinations. We compared the growth properties in eggs between the PR8 backbone and an EIV backbone from A/equine/Ibaraki/1/2007, a vaccine strain in Japan. The results showe...
Gamage C, Holl W, Parreño V, Thieulent CJ, Balasuriya UBR, Vissani MA, Barrandeguy ME, Carossino M.Group A rotavirus (RVA) infections are a leading cause of neonatal diarrhoea in foals. Neonatal mice could serve as a useful tool to study the pathogenesis of equine RVA (ERVA) as well as a preclinical model for assessment of vaccine efficacy. This study aimed to comparatively evaluate the clinical, virological and pathological features of ERVA G3P[12] and G14P[12] infection in neonatal mice and compare them with porcine OSU G5P[7] and bovine UK G6P[5] RVA reference strains. Neonatal mice orally inoculated with equine, bovine and porcine RVA developed short-lived diarrhoea at variable rates, G...
Kutumbetov L, Myrzakhmetova B, Tussipova A, Zhapparova G, Tlenchiyeva T, Bissenbayeva K, Nurabayev S, Kerimbayev A.Equine rhinopneumonia, caused by equine herpesvirus types 1 and 4 (EHV-1 and EHV-4), continues to be a significant health and economic concern in the global equine industry, particularly in Kazakhstan. While vaccines targeting EHV-1 are available, there is currently no licensed monovalent vaccine for EHV-4, and existing formulations offer limited protection against this serotype. This study aimed to develop and evaluate a freeze-dried, live-attenuated EHV-4 vaccine with improved safety, stability, and immunogenicity. Methods: A field isolate of EHV-4 was attenuated through serial passaging in ...
da Silveira BP, Kahn SK, Legere RM, Bray JM, Cole-Pfeiffer HM, Golding MC, Cohen ND, Bordin AI.Using a horse foal model, we show that enteral immunization of newborn foals with Rhodococcus equi overcomes neonatal vaccination challenges by reprogramming innate immune responses, inducing R. equi-specific adaptive humoral and cell-mediated immune responses and protecting foals against experimental pneumonia challenge. Foals were immunized twice via gavage of R. equi (immunized group) or saline (control group) at ages 1 and 3 days. At age 28 days, all foals were challenged intrabronchially with R. equi. Post-challenge, all 5 immunized foals remained healthy, whereas 67% (4/6) of control foa...
Golen GS, Erganiş O, Balevi A. is an important bacterial pathogen and causes severe chronic granulomatous pneumonia in foals below 6 months of age. It has also become an opportunistic and emerging pathogen in immunocompromised humans. Vaccination is the most cost-effective strategy for controlling and preventing this infection. Although several potential virulence genes and candidate immunogens have been identified over the years, no effective vaccine is currently available to prevent disease in horses. Recently, bacterial vector vaccines have been shown to be promising for In this study, the gene of was cloned into P...
Gao X, Liu J, Xu K, Hu J, Xiao C, Wang D, Li C, Ji C, Yao X, Wang PG, Jing Y, He Y, Shen CK.Typically, the antigen-specific antibodies constitute a small fraction-often estimated to be around 2-10 %-of the total IgG in the serum after immunization. This low percentage necessitates the use of purification techniques to enrich the antigen-specific antibodies for therapeutic or research purposes. This study introduces an affinity chromatography column using NHS-activated Sepharose as a matrix and the tetanus toxin subunit C, TeNT-Hc-C869A, as a ligand, enabling the purification of polyclonal antibodies with high specificity. This process improves antitoxin purity to over 95 %, effecti...
Matté YA, Baldasso DZ, Rezende MA, Lui JFM, Seibel AC, Guizzo JA, Frandoloso R, Kreutz LC.Lawsonia intracellularis is an obligatory intracellular bacterium associated with equine proliferative enteropathy (EPE), which significantly impacts equine health. Despite its clinical relevance, epidemiological and diagnostic approaches for this infection in horses have remained underexplored. This study aimed to evaluate the humoral immune response in horses immunized with an experimental vaccine for L. intracellularis and to determine the occurrence of anti-L. intracellularis antibodies in horses from southern Brazil using the flow cytometry antibody test (FCAT). Unassigned: A total of 12 ...
is the leading cause of acute gastroenteritis worldwide in young humans and animals. In 2023-2024, a relatively high rotavirus detection rate (34.5%) was detected in children with diarrhea in Caracas. All rotavirus strains were typed as P[8], using a multiplex RT-PCR assay, while the G-type was not identified. This unusual pattern, not previously observed in Venezuela, prompted the VP7 gene sequencing of nineteen strains, which displayed a high sequence identity (99.3-100%) compatible with the G3 genotype. These strains clustered into a well-supported lineage IX encompassing human reassortant...
McNabb L, McMahon A, Woube EG, Agnihotri K, Colling A, Broder CC, Kucinskaite-Kodze I, Petraityte-Burneikiene R, Bowden TR, Halpin K.Hendra virus (HeV) is a bat-borne zoonotic agent which can cause a severe and highly fatal disease and can be transferred from animals to humans. It has caused over 100 deaths in horses since it was discovered in 1994. Four out of seven infected humans have died. Since the release of the HeV vaccine (Equivac® HeV Hendra Virus Vaccine for Horses, Zoetis Australia Pty Ltd., Rhodes, NSW 2138) in Australia, there has been an urgent requirement for a serological test for differentiating infected from vaccinated animals (DIVA). All first-line diagnostic serological assays at the Australian Centre f...
In February 2021, a serious EHV-1 outbreak occurred at an international jumping competition in Valencia, with several subsequent outbreaks in various European countries. As a consequence, several equestrian associations introduced compulsory vaccination against EHV-1, and in the immediate aftermath of the outbreak, demand for EHV vaccinations increased sharply. The initial concern has now dissipated. One equestrian association has abolished the compulsory vaccination that had only been introduced a year before, and a general debate began questioning the efficacy and safety of EHV-vaccines. Thi...
Vaccination is one of the most important measures for preventing infectious diseases. Vaccinations against tetanus and West-Nile-Virus are essential to protect the individual horse. These infections are not contagious and are not transmitted from animal to animal. By contrast, Equine Influenza and Equine-Herpes-Virus infections are highly contagious, transmissible diseases. In addition to protecting the vaccinated individual, vaccinating as many horses as possible aims at inducing a broad herd immunity, which interrupts infection chains and thus additionally protects the individual. Vaccinatio...
O'Kennedy MM, Reedy SE, Abolnik C, Khan A, Smith T, du Preez I, Olajide E, Daly J, Cullinane A, Chambers TM.Equine influenza (EI) is a highly contagious acute respiratory disease of wild and domesticated horses, donkeys, mules, and other Equidae. EI is caused by the Equine Influenza virus (EIV), is endemic in many countries and outbreaks still have a severe impact on the equine industry globally. Conventional EI vaccines are widely used, but a need exists for a platform that facilitates prompt manufacturing of a highly immunogenic, antigenically matched, updated vaccine product. Here we developed a plant-produced bivalent EI virus-like particle (VLP) vaccine candidate which lacks the viral genome an...
Jacob O, Hause B, Peters-Smith K, Adam EN, Page AE, Floyd C, Tucker C, Eertink LG, Wang D, Li F.Equine sarcoids are the most identified skin tumors of horses, which are highly associated with bovine papillomavirus infection. Sarcoids can impair the use of the horse and are difficult to treat, resulting in significant economic losses and a welfare concern. There is no vaccine available to protect global equines from sarcoids. We aimed to determine the safety and protective antibody response in horses immunized with a recombinant baculovirus vector vaccine expressing the L1 protein of bovine papillomavirus type 1 (BPV1). A group of 10 clinically healthy, sarcoid-free horses were immunized ...
Carrasco L, Utrilla MJ, Fuentes-Romero B, Fernandez-Novo A, Martin-Maldonado B.West Nile Virus (WNV) is a zoonotic, vector-borne pathogen affecting humans and animals, particularly in Europe. The virus is primarily transmitted through mosquitoes that infect birds, which serve as the main reservoirs. Humans and horses are incidental hosts. This review focuses on the epidemiology of WNV in southern Europe, particularly its increasing prevalence. Methods included an extensive literature review and analysis of recent outbreaks. WNV is largely asymptomatic in humans, but a small percentage can develop West Nile neuroinvasive disease (WNND), leading to severe neurological symp...
Cohen ND, Hughes EV, Bayne C, Morris ERA, Bray JM, Landrock KK, Gonzales DM, Baker RM, Klein RL, Liu W, Legere RM, Wehmeyer SG, Bordin AI....Evaluate the immunogenicity of a vaccine targeting the S protein (Ssee) of Streptococcus equi subsp equi and determine antibody activity against Ssee in horses with strangles. Methods: The study was designed as a prospective experiment using 20 university-owned Quarter Horses and a cross-sectional serosurvey of 78 privately owned horses with strangles. Horses were immunized IM with 0 (n = 4), 200 (n = 8), or 400 (n = 8) μg of recombinant Ssee at weeks 0, 4, and 12. Serum and nasal secretions were collected at weeks 0, 4, 6, 12, 16, and 28 and tested by ELISA for immunoglobulin (Ig)-G against ...
Cohen ND, Hughes EV, Bayne C, Morris ERA, Bray JM, Landrock KK, Gonzales DM, Baker RM, Klein RL, Liu W, Legere RM, Wehmeyer SG, Bordin AI....Evaluate the immunogenicity of a vaccine targeting the S protein (Ssee) of Streptococcus equi subsp equi and determine antibody activity against Ssee in horses with strangles. Methods: The study was designed as a prospective experiment using 20 university-owned Quarter Horses and a cross-sectional serosurvey of 78 privately owned horses with strangles. Horses were immunized IM with 0 (n = 4), 200 (n = 8), or 400 (n = 8) μg of recombinant Ssee at weeks 0, 4, and 12. Serum and nasal secretions were collected at weeks 0, 4, 6, 12, 16, and 28 and tested by ELISA for immunoglobulin (Ig)-G against ...
Pooja , Thapa N, Rani R, Shanmugasundaram K, Jhandai P, Rakshita , Bhattacharya TK, Singha H.Immunological aspects of B. mallei infection were rarely studied in natural cases of equines. The present study was conducted to determine IgG, IgM, IgA and IgG (T) titre against recombinant Hcp1, TssA and TssB proteins and PilA-Hcp1-TssN-BipD and BpaB-BpaC- BMAA0553 chimeras and cytokine responses in glanders affected equine serum. Methods: The study was conducted on serum samples collected from 151 glanders positive equines which include horses (n = 134), mules (n = 16), and donkeys (n = 01). The IgM, IgG, IgA and IgG (T) titre were determined against recombinant antigens by indirect E...
Frontiers in allergySeptember 30, 2024
Volume 5 1467245 doi: 10.3389/falgy.2024.1467245
Graner A, Mueller RS, Geisler J, Bogenstätter D, White SJ, Jonsdottir S, Marti E.Insect bite hypersensitivity (IBH) is an IgE-mediated allergic dermatitis of horses caused by bites of spp., sharing some common features with human atopic dermatitis. Allergen immunotherapy (AIT) using whole-body extracts has limited efficacy. This study aimed to evaluate AIT with a pool of major recombinant allergens in a prospective, double-blinded, placebo-controlled study. Unassigned: The IBH lesion score was assessed during a pre-treatment year and first treatment year (May-October) in 17 horses and in May and July of a second treatment year. Nine horses were immunized subcutaneously ...
da Silveira BP, Cohen ND, Lawhon SD, Watson RO, Bordin AI.Rhodococcus equi causes pyogranulomatous pneumonia in foals and immunocompromised people. Despite decades of research efforts, no vaccine is available against this common cause of disease and death in foals. The purpose of this narrative review is to summarise the current understanding of interactions between R. equi and the host innate immune system, to describe features of the immune response that are associated with resistance or susceptibility to R. equi infection, and help guide strategies for developing novel approaches for preventing R. equi infections. Virulence of R. equi in foals has...
Kasem S, Yu MHH, Alkhalefa N, Ata EB, Nayel M, Abdo W, Abdel-Moneim AS, Fukushi H.Equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) causes respiratory illness, fetal loss, perinatal mortality, and myeloencephalopathy. This study investigated ORF15's impact on virus infectivity and neurovirulence. The Ab4p neurovirulent strain of EHV1 was used as a backbone to create Ab4p attB, Ab4p∆ORF15, and Ab4p∆ORF15R chimeras via BAC DNA transfection into RK-13 cells. Viral growth kinetics, plaque size, transcription, and growth were assessed in MDBK cells, mouse neurons, and fetal equine brain cells. Neurovirulence was evaluated post-intranasal inoculation into male CBA/N1 SPF mice, measuring signs, vi...
Holmes CM, Babasyan S, Eady N, Schnabel CL, Wagner B.Equine herpesvirus type 1 (EHV-1) is one of the most prevalent respiratory pathogens in horses with a high impact on animal health worldwide. Entry of the virus into epithelial cells of the upper respiratory tract and rapid local viral replication is followed by infection of local lymphoid tissues leading to cell-associated viremia and disease progression. Pre-existing mucosal immunity has previously been shown to reduce viral shedding and prevent viremia, consequently limiting severe disease manifestations. Here, nasopharyngeal transcriptomic profiling was used to identify differentially expr...
Schramm A, Ackermann M, Eichwald C, Aguilar C, Fraefel C, Lechmann J.Equid alphaherpesviruses 1 (EHV-1) and 4 (EHV-4) are closely related and both endemic in horses worldwide. Both viruses replicate in the upper respiratory tract, but EHV-1 may additionally lead to abortion and equine herpesvirus myeloencephalopathy (EHM). We focused on antibody responses in horses against the receptor-binding glycoprotein D of EHV-1 (gD1), which shares a 77% amino acid identity with its counterpart in EHV-4 (gD4). Both antigens give rise to cross-reacting antibodies, including neutralizing antibodies. However, immunity against EHV-4 is not considered protective against EHM. Wh...
Giessler KS, Goehring LS, Jacob SI, Davis A, Esser MM, Lee Y, Zarski LM, Weber PSD, Hussey GS.Herpesviruses establish a well-adapted balance with their host's immune system. Despite this co-evolutionary balance, infections can lead to severe disease including neurological disorders in their natural host. In horses, equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV-1) causes respiratory disease, abortions, neonatal foal death and myeloencephalopathy (EHM) in ~10 % of acute infections worldwide. Many aspects of EHM pathogenesis and protection from EHM are still poorly understood. However, it has been shown that the incidence of EHM increases to >70 % in female horses >20 years of age. In this study we use...
Hamond C, Adam EN, Stone NE, LeCount K, Anderson T, Putz EJ, Camp P, Hicks J, Stuber T, van der Linden H, Bayles DO, Sahl JW, Schlater LK, Wagner DM....Equine leptospirosis can result in abortion, stillbirth, neonatal death, placentitis, and uveitis. Horses can also act as subclinical reservoir hosts of infection, which are characterized as asymptomatic carriers that persistently excrete leptospires and transmit disease. In this study, PCR and culture were used to assess urinary shedding of pathogenic Leptospira from 37 asymptomatic mares. Three asymptomatic mares, designated as H2, H8, and H9, were PCR-positive for lipL32, a gene specific for pathogenic species of Leptospira. One asymptomatic mare, H9, was culture-positive, and the recovered...
Rockx B, Mire CE.Henipaviruses are emerging zoonotic viruses that can cause outbreaks of severe respiratory and neurological disease in humans and animals such as horses. The mechanism by which these viruses can cause disease remain largely unknown and to date there are no therapeutics or vaccines approved for use in humans. Nipah virus is listed on the World Health Organization R & D Blueprint list of epidemic threats. In order to advance the availability of effective therapeutics and vaccines and medicines that can be used to save lives and avert large scale crises, animal models are required which recap...
Carossino M, Balasuriya UBR, Thieulent CJ, Barrandeguy ME, Vissani MA, Parreño V.Equine rotavirus A (ERVA) is the leading cause of diarrhea in foals, with G3P[12] and G14P[12] genotypes being the most prevalent. Recently, equine G3-like RVA was recognized as an emerging infection in children, and a group B equine rotavirus (ERVB) was identified as an emergent cause of foal diarrhea in the US. Thus, there is a need to adapt molecular diagnostic tools for improved detection and surveillance to identify emerging strains, understand their molecular epidemiology, and inform future vaccine development. We developed a quadruplex TaqMan RT-qPCR assay for differentiation of ERVA an...
Liu L, Yu W, Cai K, Ma S, Wang Y, Ma Y, Zhao H. () is a zoonotic opportunistic pathogen that can cause life-threatening infections. The rapid evolution of multidrug-resistant and the fact that there is no currently licensed effective vaccine against warrant the need for vaccine development. Reverse vaccinology (RV), which involves screening a pathogen's entire genome and proteome using various web-based prediction tools, is considered one of the most effective approaches for identifying vaccine candidates. Here, we performed a pangenome analysis to determine the core proteins of . We then used the RV approach to examine the subcellular l...
Fox CB, Khandhar AP, Khuu L, Phan T, Kinsey R, Cordero D, Gutiérrez JM, León G.Enhancement of antivenom immune responses in horses through adjuvant technology improves antivenom production efficiency, but substantial local reactogenicity associated with some traditional veterinary adjuvants limits their usability. To explore modern adjuvant systems suitable for generating antivenom responses in horses, we first assessed their physicochemical compatibility with Bothrops asper snake venom. Liposome and nanoparticle aluminum adjuvants exhibited changes in particle size and phospholipid content after mixing with venom, whereas squalene emulsion-based adjuvants remained stabl...
Sewgobind S, McCracken F, Schilling M.West Nile virus (WNV) is a positive-sense single-stranded RNA virus belonging to the Flaviviridae family and is maintained in an enzootic cycle between avian hosts and mosquito vectors. Humans, horses and other mammals are susceptible to infection but are dead-end hosts due to a low viraemia. The disease can manifest itself in a variety of clinical signs and symptoms in people and horses from mild fever to severe encephalitis and morbidity. There are no vaccines licensed for human protection, but parts of Europe, North America, Africa and Australia have vaccines commercially available for hors...
Davis BS, Chang GJ, Cropp B, Roehrig JT, Martin DA, Mitchell CJ, Bowen R, Bunning ML.Introduction of West Nile (WN) virus into the United States in 1999 created major human and animal health concerns. Currently, no human or veterinary vaccine is available to prevent WN viral infection, and mosquito control is the only practical strategy to combat the spread of disease. Starting with a previously designed eukaryotic expression vector, we constructed a recombinant plasmid (pCBWN) that expressed the WN virus prM and E proteins. A single intramuscular injection of pCBWN DNA induced protective immunity, preventing WN virus infection in mice and horses. Recombinant plasmid-transform...
Quinlivan M, Zamarin D, García-Sastre A, Cullinane A, Chambers T, Palese P.Equine influenza is a common disease of the horse, causing significant morbidity worldwide. Here we describe the establishment of a plasmid-based reverse genetics system for equine influenza virus. Utilizing this system, we generated three mutant viruses encoding carboxy-terminally truncated NS1 proteins. We have previously shown that a recombinant human influenza virus lacking the NS1 gene (delNS1) could only replicate in interferon (IFN)-incompetent systems, suggesting that the NS1 protein is responsible for IFN antagonist activity. Contrary to previous findings with human influenza virus, w...
Middleton D, Pallister J, Klein R, Feng YR, Haining J, Arkinstall R, Frazer L, Huang JA, Edwards N, Wareing M, Elhay M, Hashmi Z, Bingham J, Yamada M....In recent years, the emergence of several highly pathogenic zoonotic diseases in humans has led to a renewed emphasis on the interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health, otherwise known as One Health. For example, Hendra virus (HeV), a zoonotic paramyxovirus, was discovered in 1994, and since then, infections have occurred in 7 humans, each of whom had a strong epidemiologic link to similarly affected horses. As a consequence of these outbreaks, eradication of bat populations was discussed, despite their crucial environmental roles in pollination and reduction of the insect p...
Kinney RM, Johnson BJ, Welch JB, Tsuchiya KR, Trent DW.Nucleotide sequence analysis of cDNA clones covering the entire genomes of Trinidad donkey (TRD) Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE) virus and its vaccine derivative, TC-83, has revealed 11 differences between the genomes of TC-83 virus and its parent. One nucleotide substitution and a single nucleotide deletion occurred in the 5'- and 3'-noncoding regions of the TC-83 genome, respectively. The deduced amino acid sequences of the nonstructural polypeptides of the two viruses differed only in a conservative Ser(TRD) to Thr(TC-83) substitution in nonstructural protein (nsP) three at amino acid ...
Whitlock GC, Estes DM, Torres AG.Burkholderia mallei, the etiologic agent of the disease known as glanders, is primarily a disease affecting horses and is transmitted to humans by direct contact with infected animals. The use of B. mallei as a biological weapon has been reported and currently, there is no vaccine available for either humans or animals. Despite the history and highly infective nature of B. mallei, as well as its potential use as a bio-weapon, B. mallei research to understand the pathogenesis and the host responses to infection remains limited. Therefore, this minireview will focus on current efforts to elucida...
Pallister J, Middleton D, Wang LF, Klein R, Haining J, Robinson R, Yamada M, White J, Payne J, Feng YR, Chan YP, Broder CC.The henipaviruses, Hendra virus (HeV) and Nipah virus (NiV), are two deadly zoonotic viruses for which no vaccines or therapeutics have yet been approved for human or livestock use. In 14 outbreaks since 1994 HeV has been responsible for multiple fatalities in horses and humans, with all known human infections resulting from close contact with infected horses. A vaccine that prevents virus shedding in infected horses could interrupt the chain of transmission to humans and therefore prevent HeV disease in both. Here we characterise HeV infection in a ferret model and show that it closely mirror...
van Kasteren PB, Bailey-Elkin BA, James TW, Ninaber DK, Beugeling C, Khajehpour M, Snijder EJ, Mark BL, Kikkert M.Protein ubiquitination regulates important innate immune responses. The discovery of viruses encoding deubiquitinating enzymes (DUBs) suggests they remove ubiquitin to evade ubiquitin-dependent antiviral responses; however, this has never been conclusively demonstrated in virus-infected cells. Arteriviruses are economically important positive-stranded RNA viruses that encode an ovarian tumor (OTU) domain DUB known as papain-like protease 2 (PLP2). This enzyme is essential for arterivirus replication by cleaving a site within the viral replicase polyproteins and also removes ubiquitin from cell...
Patel JR, Heldens J.This review concentrates on the epidemiology, latency and pathogenesis of, and the approaches taken to control infection of horses by equine herpesvirus types 1 (EHV-1) and 4 (EHV-4). Although both viruses may cause febrile rhinopneumonitis, EHV-1 is the main cause of abortions, paresis and neonatal foal deaths. The lesion central to these three conditions is necrotising vasculitis and thrombosis resulting from lytic infection of endothelial cells lining blood capillaries. The initiation of infection in these lesions is likely to be by reactivated EHV-1 from latently infected leukocytes. Howev...
Timoney JF.Streptococci pathogenic for the horse include S. equi (S. equi subsp. equi), S. zooepidemicus (S. equi subsp. zooepidemicus), S. dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis and S. pneumoniae capsule Type III. S. equi is a clonal descendent or biovar of an ancestral S. zooepidemicus strain with which it shares greater than 98% DNA homology and therefore expresses many of the same proteins and virulence factors. Rapid progress has been made in identification of virulence factors and proteins uniquely expressed by S. equi. Most of these are expressed either on the bacterial surface or are secreted. Notable e...
Campo MS.Tumorigenesis due to papillomavirus (PV) infection was first demonstrated in rabbits and cattle early last century. Despite the evidence obtained in animals, the role of viruses in human cancer was dismissed as irrelevant. It took a paradigm shift in the late 1970s for some viruses to be recognised as 'tumour viruses' in humans, and in 1995, more than 60 years after Rous's first demonstration of CRPV oncogenicity, WHO officially declared that 'HPV-16 and HPV-18 are carcinogenic to humans'. Experimental studies with animal PVs have been a determining factor in this decision. Animal PVs have bee...
Garmashova N, Atasheva S, Kang W, Weaver SC, Frolova E, Frolov I.The encephalitogenic New World alphaviruses, including Venezuelan (VEEV), eastern (EEEV), and western equine encephalitis viruses, constitute a continuing public health threat in the United States. They circulate in Central, South, and North America and have the ability to cause fatal disease in humans and in horses and other domestic animals. We recently demonstrated that these viruses have developed the ability to interfere with cellular transcription and use it as a means of downregulating a cellular antiviral response. The results of the present study suggest that the N-terminal, approxima...
Steele KE, Twenhafel NA.The encephalitides caused by Venezuelan (VEEV), eastern (EEEV), and western (WEEV) equine encephalitis viruses are important natural diseases of horses and humans and potential agents of biowarfare or bioterrorism. No licensed vaccines or specific therapies exist to prevent or treat human infections with VEEV, EEEV, or WEEV. Well-characterized animal models are needed to support the development of such medical countermeasures under the United States Food and Drug Administration's "Animal Rule." This review focuses on the pathological features and pathogenetic mechanisms of these alphaviral enc...
Broder CC, Xu K, Nikolov DB, Zhu Z, Dimitrov DS, Middleton D, Pallister J, Geisbert TW, Bossart KN, Wang LF.Hendra virus and Nipah virus are bat-borne paramyxoviruses that are the prototypic members of the genus Henipavirus. The henipaviruses emerged in the 1990s, spilling over from their natural bat hosts and causing serious disease outbreaks in humans and livestock. Hendra virus emerged in Australia and since 1994 there have been 7 human infections with 4 case fatalities. Nipah virus first appeared in Malaysia and subsequent outbreaks have occurred in Bangladesh and India. In total, there have been an estimated 582 human cases of Nipah virus and of these, 54% were fatal. Their broad species tropis...
Daly JM, Lai AC, Binns MM, Chambers TM, Barrandeguy M, Mumford JA.Evolution of equine influenza a H3N8 viruses was examined by antigenic and genetic analysis of a collection isolates from around the world. It was noted that antigenic and genetic variants of equine H3N8 viruses cocirculate, and in particular that variants currently circulating in Europe and the USA are distinguishable from one another both in terms of antigenic reactivity and genetic structure of the HA1 portion of the haemagglutinin (HA) molecule. Whilst the divergent evolution of American and European isolates may be due to geographical isolation of the two gene pools, some mixing is believ...
Leroux C, Cadoré JL, Montelaro RC.Equine Infectious Anemia Virus (EIAV) is a lentivirus, of the Retrovirus family, with an almost worldwide distribution, infecting equids. It causes a persistent infection characterized by recurring febrile episodes associating viremia, fever, thrombocytopenia, and wasting symptoms. The disease is experimentally reproducible by inoculation of Shetland ponies or horses with EIAV pathogenic strains. Among lentiviruses, EIAV is unique in that, despite a rapid virus replication and antigenic variation, most animals progress from a chronic stage characterized by recurring peaks of viremia and fever ...
Nasir L, Campo MS.Bovine papillomavirus (BPV) is perhaps the most extensively studied animal papillomavirus. In cattle BPVs induce benign tumours of cutaneous or mucosal epithelia, called papillomas or warts. Cattle papillomas are benign tumours and generally regress without eliciting any serious clinical problems in the host, but occasionally persist and provide the focus for malignant transformation to squamous cell carcinoma, as in the case of cancer of the urinary bladder and cancer of the upper alimentary canal. BPV is the only papillomavirus that jumps species: the virus also infects equids, and gives ris...
Boyle AG, Timoney JF, Newton JR, Hines MT, Waller AS, Buchanan BR.This consensus statement update reflects our current published knowledge and opinion about clinical signs, pathogenesis, epidemiology, treatment, complications, and control of strangles. This updated statement emphasizes varying presentations in the context of existing underlying immunity and carrier states of strangles in the transmission of disease. The statement redefines the "gold standard" for detection of possible infection and reviews the new technologies available in polymerase chain reaction diagnosis and serology and their use in outbreak control and prevention. We reiterate the impo...
Hammond SA, Cook SJ, Lichtenstein DL, Issel CJ, Montelaro RC.Equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) provides a natural model system by which immunological control of lentivirus infections may be studied. To date, no detailed study addressing in parallel both the humoral and cellular immune responses induced in horses upon infection by EIAV has been conducted. Therefore, we initiated the first comprehensive characterization of the cellular and humoral immune responses during clinical progression from chronic disease to inapparent stages of EIAV infection. Using new analyses of antibody avidity and antibody epitope conformation dependence that had not been...
Palaniappan RU, Chang YF, Jusuf SS, Artiushin S, Timoney JF, McDonough SP, Barr SC, Divers TJ, Simpson KW, McDonough PL, Mohammed HO.A clone expressing a novel immunoreactive leptospiral immunoglobulin-like protein A of 130 kDa (LigA) from Leptospira interrogans serovar pomona type kennewicki was isolated by screening a genomic DNA library with serum from a mare that had recently aborted due to leptospiral infection. LigA is encoded by an open reading frame of 3,675 bp, and the deduced amino acid sequence consists of a series of 90-amino-acid tandem repeats. A search of the NCBI database found that homology of the LigA repeat region was limited to an immunoglobulin-like domain of the bacterial intimin binding protein of Esc...
van der Meulen KM, Pensaert MB, Nauwynck HJ.West Nile virus (WNV), an arthropod-borne virus belonging to the family Flaviviridae, had been recognized in Africa, Asia and the south of Europe for many decades. Only recently, it has been associated with an increasing number of outbreaks of encephalitis in humans and equines as well as an increasing number of infections in vertebrates of a wide variety of species. In this article, the data available on the incidence of WNV in vertebrates are reviewed. Moreover, the role of vertebrates in the transmission of WNV, the control of WNV infections in veterinary medicine as well as future perspect...
Levy R, Forsyth CM, LaPorte SL, Geren IN, Smith LA, Marks JD.Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT), the most poisonous substance known, causes naturally occurring human disease (botulism) and is one of the top six biothreat agents. Botulism is treated with polyclonal antibodies produced in horses that are associated with a high incidence of systemic reactions. Human monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are under development as a safer therapy. Identifying neutralizing epitopes on BoNTs is an important step in generating neutralizing mAbs, and has implications for vaccine development. Here, we show that the three domains of BoNT serotype A (BoNT/A) can be displayed on the...
Mahalingam S, Herrero LJ, Playford EG, Spann K, Herring B, Rolph MS, Middleton D, McCall B, Field H, Wang LF.Hendra virus, first identified in 1994 in Queensland, is an emerging zoonotic pathogen gaining importance in Australia because a growing number of infections are reported in horses and people. The virus, a member of the family Paramyxoviridae (genus Henipavirus), is transmitted to horses by pteropid bats (fruit bats or flying foxes), with human infection a result of direct contact with infected horses. Case-fatality rate is high in both horses and people, and so far, more than 60 horses and four people have died from Hendra virus infection in Australia. Human infection is characterised by an a...
Bryant NA, Rash AS, Russell CA, Ross J, Cooke A, Bowman S, MacRae S, Lewis NS, Paillot R, Zanoni R, Meier H, Griffiths LA, Daly JM, Tiwari A....Equine influenza virus (EIV) surveillance is important in the management of equine influenza. It provides data on circulating and newly emerging strains for vaccine strain selection. To this end, antigenic characterisation by haemaggluttination inhibition (HI) assay and phylogenetic analysis was carried out on 28 EIV strains isolated in North America and Europe during 2006 and 2007. In the UK, 20 viruses were isolated from 28 nasopharyngeal swabs that tested positive by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. All except two of the UK viruses were characterised as members of the Florida sublineage w...
Lobigs M, Pavy M, Hall RA, Lobigs P, Cooper P, Komiya T, Toriniwa H, Petrovsky N.Advax is a polysaccharide-based adjuvant that potently stimulates vaccine immunogenicity without the increased reactogenicity seen with other adjuvants. This study investigated the immunogenicity of a novel Advax-adjuvanted Vero cell culture candidate vaccine against Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) in mice and horses. The results showed that, in mice, a two-immunization, low-dose (50 ng JEV antigen) regimen with adjuvanted vaccine produced solid neutralizing immunity comparable to that elicited with live ChimeriVax-JE immunization and superior to that elicited with tenfold higher doses of a ...
Thompson JM, Whitmore AC, Konopka JL, Collier ML, Richmond EM, Davis NL, Staats HF, Johnston RE.Vaccination represents the most effective control measure in the fight against infectious diseases. Local mucosal immune responses are critical for protection from, and resolution of, infection by numerous mucosal pathogens. Antigen processing across mucosal surfaces is the natural route by which mucosal immunity is generated, as peripheral antigen delivery typically fails to induce mucosal immune responses. However, we demonstrate in this article that mucosal immune responses are evident at multiple mucosal surfaces after parenteral delivery of Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus replicon pa...
Lewis NS, Daly JM, Russell CA, Horton DL, Skepner E, Bryant NA, Burke DF, Rash AS, Wood JL, Chambers TM, Fouchier RA, Mumford JA, Elton DM, Smith DJ.Equine influenza virus is a major respiratory pathogen in horses, and outbreaks of disease often lead to substantial disruption to and economic losses for equestrian industries. The hemagglutinin (HA) protein is of key importance in the control of equine influenza because HA is the primary target of the protective immune response and the main component of currently licensed influenza vaccines. However, the influenza virus HA protein changes over time, a process called antigenic drift, and vaccine strains must be updated to remain effective. Antigenic drift is assessed primarily by the hemagglu...
Bowen RA, Nemeth NM.West Nile virus emerged recently in North America as a serious human and animal pathogen. This review summarizes the use of experimental infections with West Nile virus in diverse vertebrate species that have been used to answer fundamental questions about the host response, pathogenesis of West Nile virus infection and virus evolution. Results: West Nile virus has an extremely broad vertebrate host range. Infection of common species of birds has defined those with high vs. low potential to serve as amplifying hosts for the virus. In general, mammals (primates, horses, companion animals) are d...
Dauphin G, Zientara S.West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus, native to Africa, Europe, and Western Asia. In many respects, WNV is an outstanding example of a zoonotic pathogen that has leaped geographical barriers and can cause severe disease in human and horse. Before the emergence of WNV in the USA, only few methods of diagnosis were available. Recently, many changes in the fields of WN diagnosis and prevention have happened. This paper will review all these new tools. After a description of the main concerns in WNV and West Nile (WN) disease in humans and animals, this review will present the main...
Cullinane A, Newton JR.To date, equine influenza outbreaks have been reported all over the world with the exception of a small number of island nations including New Zealand and Iceland. Influenza is endemic in Europe and North America and is considered to be of potentially major economic significance to the equine industry worldwide. The importation of subclinically infected vaccinated horses, and inadequate quarantine procedures have resulted in several major outbreaks in susceptible populations for example, in Australia (2007) when more than 76,000 horses on over 10,000 properties were reported as infected. This ...
